Space observation is inevitable to know about the formation of the universe and galaxies, and for imaging far objects. Therefore, astronomers always strive to build better telescopes with high resolution and stability. Methods to fabricate low-weight large-size precision telescope mirrors are being continuously developed around the globe. Material selection and processing method are two important aspects in fabricating high performance mirrors. ZerodurTM, a nano-crystalline glass ceramic, has found wide ranging application in earth-bound and space-borne astronomical telescopes due to its near-zero thermal expansion coefficient. To finish this kind of material, Shape Adaptive Grinding (SAG) with contact type elastic abrasive tools is a viable process that achieves excellent surface roughness (Ra < 1 nm) and form error (P-V ~ 20 nm). However, the relatively high hardness of ZerodurTM causes material removal by mechanical means to be rather low. In this paper, a new SAG+ process is proposed where cerium oxide slurry is used together with diamond based SAG tools to leverage chemo-mechanical interaction and improve the material removal rate. Cerium oxide acts as a reducing agent that destabilizes silica crystals. This allows the Si-O bond to weaken and enhances material removal during polishing. Various grades of resin bonded diamond SAG tools were used in combination with cerium oxide slurry to process lapped ZerodurTM samples on an industrial robot. SAG+ could achieve at least 50% reduction in the polishing time while retaining similar material removal depth and surface finish. The capabilities of SAG+ were also demonstrated in pre-polishing of silicon X-ray mirror segments, whereby the surface roughness reduced by 47-62% for different grades of polishing tools. These results on robotic polishing of large mirror substrates employing proposed SAG+ technology seems a promising advancement towards sustainable manufacturing, where energy footprint can be significantly reduced by shortening the overall polishing cycle time.
A Micro-lens Array (MLA) is an optical element in which multiple lens segments are integrated onto a single substrate. Traditional MLAs consist of segments with the same geometric shape arranged at regular intervals atop a planar surface. They are used for applications that include beam homogenization, to equalize light intensity distribution, and light field imaging to change post-exposure the optical configuration such as viewpoint and focal distance of the captured image data. However, the limitations imposed by the identical segment geometry and the regular arrangement pattern constrain the range of possible applications and their associated performance. In this paper, novel MLA geometries and design methods are introduced that enable new generation products. With this type of MLA, each segment can have a different free planar shape and freeform surface shape in height direction. The segments of MLA are designed with topology optimization method based on internal stresses, that allows unsupervised design of optical segments. The designed freeform segments can maximize the use of light the lens, according to the target illumination pattern and intensity defined by each segment.
Recent efforts at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Centre aim to produce X-ray telescopes that deflect X-ray beams into an observatory’s instruments at an extremely shallow angle, yielding high-resolution images. This necessitates exceptional surface slope precision on each individual aspheric mirror. Typical industrial robotic polishing accuracy remains well below the practical specifications of X-ray optics, due to undesired equipment vibrations that induce waviness in the polishing contact zone. It is therefore necessary to develop a method that can ensure consistent contact and accommodate for undesirable vibrational effects in the polishing equipment. This work presents a study on contact pressure fluctuations in the contact zone, validated by a statistical approach to counteract the imprinted vibration. A passive error compensator is introduced thereby maintaining uniform pressure, adhering to the planned material removal rate. Analysis of the experimental results verified the elimination of force overshoot, bringing us closer to the practical applicability of robot polishing to produce performance standard X-ray mirror segments.
In the context of Industrie 4.0, we have previously described the roles of robots in optical processing, and their complementarity with classical CNC machines, providing both processing and automation functions. After having demonstrated robotic moving of parts between a CNC polisher and metrology station, and auto-fringe-acquisition, we have moved on to automate the wash-down operation. This is part of a wider strategy we describe in this paper, leading towards automating the decision-making operations required before and throughout an optical manufacturing cycle.
Producing X-ray imaging space telescopes is a very expensive endeavor, due in great part to the difficulty of fabricating thin mirrors for Wolter type-I optical assemblies. To meet this challenge, replication from optical molding dies (also called mandrels) has become the preferred method, as it is reliable and economical. Several replication methods exist: in the case of the ASTRO-H mission, DC magnetron sputtering was used to deposit Pt/C multilayer coating on glass molding dies. The multilayer coating was then bonded with epoxy to aluminum shells and then separated from the die. Another mirror replication method consists of slumping thin glass sheets over a full (or a section of) revolution molding die under high temperature. This method was demonstrated in the case of the NuSTAR mission.
But the challenge of fabricating truly aspheric Wolter type molding dies, which are capable of highly accurate angular resolution (below 5 arcs), remains very expensive and time consuming. In this paper, three methods for producing X-ray optic molding dies are presented. Each method uses a different substrate material and process chain, as follows: electroless nickel plated aluminum (first diamond turned then correctively polished), fused silica (first precision ground then correctively polished), and CVD silicon carbide (which can be finished entirely with a newly developed Shape Adaptive Grinding process). The process chains employed for each method are explained in details, and their relative merits discussed. A way forward for the next generation of X-ray telescopes after ASTRO-H is then drawn out.
The progressive transition from Excimer to EUV lithography is driving a need for flatter and smoother photomasks. It is
proving difficult to meet this next generation specification with the conventional chemical mechanical polishing
technology commonly used for finishing photomasks. This paper reports on the application of sub-aperture CNC
precessed bonnet polishing technology to the corrective finishing of photomask substrates for EUV lithography. Fullfactorial
analysis was used to identify process parameters capable of delivering 0.5 nm rms surface roughness whilst
achieving removal rates above 0.1 mm3/min. Experimental results show that masks pre-polished to 300~600 nm P-V flatness by CMP can then be improved down to 50~100 nm P-V flatness using the automated technology described in
this paper. A series of edge polishing experiments also hints at the possibility of increasing the quality area beyond the 5
mm defined in the official EUV photomask specification.
On one hand, the “float polishing” process consists of a tin lap having many concentric grooves, cut from a flat by single
point diamond turning. This lap is rotated above a hydrostatic bearing spindle of high rigidity, damping and rotational
accuracy. The optical surface thus floats above a thin layer of abrasive particles. But whilst surface texture can be
smoothed to ~0.1nm rms (as measured by atomic force microscopy), this process can only be used on flat surfaces. On
the other hand, the CNC “fluid jet polishing” process consists of pumping a mixture of water and abrasive particles to a
converging nozzle, thus generating a polishing spot that can be moved along a tool path with tight track spacing. But
whilst tool path feed can be moderated to ultra-precisely correct form error on freeform optical surfaces, surface finish
improvement is generally limited to ~1.5nm rms (with fine abrasives). This paper reports on the development of a novel
finishing method, that combines the advantages of “fluid jet polishing” (i.e. freeform corrective capability) with “float
polishing” (i.e. super-smooth surface finish of 0.1nm rms or less). To come up with this new “hybrid” method,
computational fluid dynamic modeling of both processes in COMSOL is being used to characterize abrasion conditions
and adapt the process parameters of experimental fluid jet polishing equipment, including: (1) geometrical shape of
nozzle, (2) position relative to the surface, (3) control of inlet pressure. This new process is aimed at finishing of next
generation X-Ray / Gamma Ray focusing optics.
Ultra-precision diamond turning can deliver very accurate form, often less than 100nm P-V. A possible manufacturing
method for thin Wolter type-1 mirrors in hard X-ray space telescopes thus involves generating electroless nickel plated
mandrels by diamond turning, before coating them with a reflective film and substrate. However, the surface texture
after turning falls far short from the requirements of X-ray and EUV applications. The machining marks need to be
removed, with hand polishing still widely employed. There is thus a compelling need for automated finishing of turned dies. A two step finishing method is presented that combines fluid jet and precessed bonnet polishing on a common 7-axis CNC platform. This method is capable of finishing diamond turned electroless nickel plated dies down to 0.28nm rms roughness, while deterministically improving form error down to 30nm P-V. The fluid jet polishing process, which consists of pressurizing water and abrasive particles for delivery through a nozzle, has been specially optimized with a newly designed slurry delivery unit and computer simulations, to remove diamond turning marks without introducing another waviness signature. The precessed bonnet polishing method, which consists of an inflated membrane rotated at an angle from the local normal to the surface and controlled by geometrical position relative to the work-piece, is subsequently employed with a novel control algorithm to deliver scratch-free surface roughness down to 0.28 nm rms. The combination of these two deterministic processes to finish aspheric and freeform dies promises to unlock new frontiers in X-ray and EUV optics fabrication.
This paper addresses two challenges in establishing a new process chain for polishing hexagonal segments for
extremely large telescopes:- i) control of edge and corner profiles in small-tool polishing of hexagons, and ii)
achieving the required smoothness of the bulk aspheric form. We briefly describe the performance of a CNC-grinding
process used to create the off-axis asphere, which established the input-quality for subsequent processing. We then
summarize processes for smoothing ground mid-spatials and pre- and corrective polishing using Zeeko CNC
machines. The impact of two cases is considered; i) all processing stages are performed after the segment is cut
hexagonal, and ii) final rectification of a hexagon after cutting from an aspherised roundel, as an alternative to ionfiguring.
We then report on experimental results on witness samples demonstrating edges and corners close to the EELT
segment specification, and results on a full-aperture spherical segment showing excellent surface smoothness.
Electroless Nickel (ENi) and binderless Tungsten Carbide (WC) are materials widely used in industry to make
replication moulds for precision optics, with applications ranging from consumer camera lenses to high accuracy X-ray
mirrors. The aspheric shape generation is generally performed by diamond turning in the case of Nickel, and micro-grinding
in the case of Tungsten Carbide. However, both machining methods fall short from meeting the ultra-precision
criteria required by an increasing number of applications, because of insufficient form accuracy and the frequency
content of the machining marks they leave on the surface. It is thus commonly observed in industry that moulds need to
be subsequently polished by hand, a usually slow and human resource intensive operation. The Zeeko 7-axis CNC
machine, equipped with sub-aperture fluid jet and precessed bonnet polishing technology, has been used to develop
deterministic finishing processes on both Electroless Nickel and Tungsten Carbide. Corrective polishing to less than λ/20
(<31nm PV) form error can be achieved, as well as the ability to smooth surface texture down to 1nm Ra or less, in a
time efficient manner.
In this paper we address two interrelated issues important to primary mirror segments for extremely large telescopes - edge-control, and the detailed topography over the segment surface. Both affect the intensity and distribution of stray
light and infrared emissivity. CNC polishing processes typically deploy spiral or raster tool-paths, tending to leave
repetitive features. We compare and contrast two novel families of pseudo-random tool-paths for Precessions CNC
polishing. We then show how CNC control of the three-dimensional tool-path can optimize edge-profiles. Finally, we
demonstrate fluid-jet polishing used to clean up residual edge defects.
This paper describes a major advance in the post-treatment of diamond-turned surfaces to remove repetitive micro-structure;
a result which could have a major beneficial impact on fabrication of Walter-type X-ray mandrels, and metal
mirrors. Diamond-turning is highly deterministic and versatile in producing axially-symmetric forms, and through fast-tool
servos, non-axially symmetric, free-form and micro-structured surfaces. However, the fine turning marks left in the
metal surface limit performance. In this paper, we describe how fluid-jet polishing under CNC control can be used to
eliminate these structures, without significantly degrading the surface roughness or form produced by the prior turning
operation.
This paper reports on the commissioning of the first of Zeeko's "IRP1200" 1.2m capacity 7-axis automated CNC polishing machines. These combo machines now support five different removal regimes, which are described. The machines differ substantially from Zeeko's more familiar 200mm machines on which we have focused before, in terms of overall architecture and detailed design. Large and small optics place different demands on part-fixturing, tooling, machine speeds and accelerations, metrology, slurry-handling, part-loading and access etc. These have had a profound effect on the development-path from 200 to 1.2m machines. Moreover, an advance in the kinematic design has extended the allowable range of surface slope-angles from typically 30° up to a hemisphere. The paper presents results from the pass-off trials, the first fluid-jet experiment, and the development of tooling to address a requirement to smooth a part with a local defect.
The requirements of space and defence optical systems and ground-based astronomy (especially extremely large telescopes) are providing optical fabricators with new challenges. These challenges particularly concern process speed, determinism and automation, and tighter tolerances on surface form and texture. Moreover, there is a growing demand for complex off-axis and 'freeform' surfaces and for larger components of the ~1m scale.
With this in view, we first report on form-correction on a smaller analogue of the IRP1200: an IRP400 in service in industry. We then report on the design, commissioning and preliminary process-development results from the first of the scaled-up 1.2m capacity CNC polishing machine from Zeeko, Ltd. This machine delivers the 'Classic' bonnet-based process, together with two new processes: fluid-jet polishing and the hybrid soft-grinding/polishing process called 'Zeeko-Grolish.' We indicate how this trio of processes running on the same machine platform with unified software can provide an unprecedented dynamic range in both volumetric removal rate and removal spot-size. This leads into a discussion of how these processes may be brought to bear on optimal control of texture and form. Preliminary performance of the 1.2m machine is illustrated with results on both axially-symmetric and more complex removal regimes. The paper concludes with an overview of the relevance of the technology to efficient production of instrumentation-optics, space optics and segmented telescope mirrors.
The recent upsurge in the demand for off-axis and complex "freeform" optical surfaces is driving the development of novel processes for their fabrication. This paper focuses on recent developments of the Precessions CNC polishing process for freeform surfaces, including off-axis as a special case. First, the surface-prescription and metrology-data, and their relation to the data-input for the polishing machines, are considered. The relevance of consistent coordinate frames is emphasised. An outline of how the process can 'polish' a ground freeform part (improve the texture), and then 'figure' the part (reduce the form errors) is given. Specific experimental case-studies are then presented, illustrating the versatility of the process on different materials and forms. Recent work is included in which the process-speed has been moderated in order to remove tens of nanometres of stock material, rather then the more usual hundreds of nanometres to tens of microns as in the standard Precessions process. The relevance of this to improving the ultimate surface-precision that should be achievable by this method is described. As a final illustration, the potential of the process to the rapid fabrication of the hundreds to thousands of 1-2 metre class mirror segments required for extremely large telescopes is considered.
Zeeko's Precession polishing process uses a bulged, rotating membrane tool, creating a contact-area of variable size. In separate modes of operation, the bonnet rotation-axis is orientated pole-down on the surface, or inclined at an angle and then precessed about the local normal. The bonnet, covered with standard polishing cloth and working with standard slurry, has been found to give superb surface textures in the regime of nanometre to sub-nanometre Ra values, starting with parts directly off precision CNC aspheric grinding machines. This paper reports an important extension of the process to the precision-controlled smoothing (or 'fining') operation required between more conventional diamond milling and subsequent Precession polishing. The method utilises an aggressive surface on the bonnet, again with slurry. This is compared with an alternative approach using diamond abrasives bound onto flexible carriers attached to the bonnets. The results demonstrate the viability of smoothing aspheric surfaces, which extends Precessions processing to parts with inferior input-quality. This may prove of particular importance to large optics where significant volumes of material may need to be removed, and to the creation of more substantial aspheric departures from a parent sphere. The paper continues with a recent update on results obtained, and lessons learnt, processing free-form surfaces, and concludes with an assessment of the relevance of the smoothing and free-form operations to the fabrication of off-axis parts including segments for extremely large telescopes.
David Walker, Anthony Beaucamp, David Brooks, V. Doubrovski, Matthew Cassie, C. Dunn, Richard Freeman, Andrew King, M. Libert, Gerry McCavana, Roger Morton, David Riley, John Simms
Since the 2003 Annual Meeting, the Precessions process has become accepted as an efficient method for polishing and figuring moderate-sized axially-symmetric aspheric parts in industry. In this paper, we report on some very significant new advances beyond this capability. The first is the demonstration of the process on substantially larger diameter parts than worked hitherto - in particular, a precision-ground 500mm diameter deeply-concave aspheric mirror. We describe the consequences of polishing large parts with the axis of the part vertical, in contrast to the horizontal axis of the smaller machines. Issues include slurry puddling and settlement in concave forms, process-uniformity, adequate support of the part and handling. We then report on recent work developing the Precessions process for non axially-symmetric surfaces including free-form. The correct relationship of the process with metrology has proved to be complex on several fronts, one example being differing descriptions of form either along a surface or its projection. We present our experience using profilometry and interferometry on precision-ground and polished surfaces, and in achieving absolute form with known base radius. Finally, we remark on the potential power of a priori predictions of achievable surface quality when optimizing optical system designs.
David Walker, Anthony Beaucamp, David Brooks, V. Doubrovski, Matthew Cassie, C. Dunn, Richard Freeman, Andrew King, M. Libert, Gerry McCavana, Roger Morton, David Riley, John Simms
The Precessions process uses an inflated membrane-tool that delivers near-Gaussian polishing spots. The tool-motion over the part can be constructed to preserve an aspheric form whilst removing damage from preceding processes, or control the form through a tool-path prescribed by numerical optimization. The process has previously been validated on surfaces up to 200mm diameter and used extensively in industrial environments. In this paper we report the first trials on a substantially larger part - a 500mm diameter f/1 ellipsoidal mirror - as part of the UK’s technology-development for Extremely Large Telescopes. We draw attention to subtle problems that have arisen along the way. We also report on developing the process for free-form surfaces, in contrast to the axially-symmetric parts worked hitherto. The paper concludes with an assessment of the lessons learnt from the experiments, as they may impact on realization in a practical ELT segment fabrication facility.
The Precessions process for producing aspheric and other optical surfaces is undergoing rapid development. In this paper, we summarise the considerable success achieved in controlling the repeatability of the process on both the 200mm and 600mm machines, and illustrate this with examples of aspherics that have been produced. We particularly describe our approach to fine form-control. This has required the development of various strategies to moderate the volumetric removal rates, in order to give the required sensitivity of removal. We conclude with a discussion of the scaling laws that apply when adapting the process to smaller and larger sized parts. This is illustrated by predicting the process-parameters for mass-producing segments for extremely large telescopes.
David Walker, A. Beaucamp, Richard Bingham, David Brooks, Richard Freeman, Sowoon Kim, Andrew King, Gerry McCavana, Roger Morton, David Riley, John Simms
We summarize the reasons why aspheric surfaces, including non-rotationally-symmetric surfaces, are increasingly important to ground and space-based astronomical instruments, yet challenging to produce. We mainly consider the generic problem of producing aspheres, and then lightweight segments for the primary mirror of an Extremely Large Telescope. We remark on the tension between manufacturability of spherical segments, and performance with aspheric segments. This provides the context for our presentation of the novel Precessions process for rapid polishing and form-correction of aspheric surfaces. We outline why this is a significant step beyond previous methods to automate aspheric production, and how it has resulted in a generalized, scaleable technology that does not require high capital-value tooling customized to particular types of optical form. We summarize implementation in the first two automated CNC machines of 200mm capacity, followed by the first 600mm machine, and the current status of the process-development program. We review quantitative results of polishing trials, including materials relevant to large and instrumentation optics. Finally, we comment on the potential of the technology for space optics and for removing quilting in honeycomb substrates.
We first consider the potential impact of a technology that could deliver polished, accurate aspheric surfaces in a routine and automated manner. We then summarise the technical challenge, and present an appraisal of the performance of the novel 'Precessions' process, which is a major advance in this direction. We outline the design concepts behind the productionized CNC polishing machines which executes the process, and then describe the progress developing strategies to preserve form when polishing ground surfaces, and to correct form on both pre-ground and polished surfaces. Particular consideration is given to resolving the inherent difficulties of control of centres on rotationally-symmetric parts. We then report on experimental results achieved with the machines. Finally, we present our programme to extend the control-algorithms to handle fully free-form surfaces, and draw conclusions about the effectiveness and generality of the 'Precessions' technique.
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