We have developed dual energy (DE) iodine contrast imaging functions with a commercial mammography and
tomosynthesis system. Our system uses a tungsten target x-ray tube and selenium direct conversion detector.
Conventional low energy (LE) images were acquired with existing Rh, Ag and Al filters at the screening doses while the
high energy images (HE) were acquired with new Cu filters at half of the screening doses. In DE 2D mode, a pair of LE
and HE images was taken with one second delay time between and with anti-scatter grid. In DE 3D mode, 22 views of
alternating LE and HE were taken over 15 degrees angle in seven seconds without grid while tube was scanned
continuously. We used log-subtraction algorithm to obtain clean DE images with the subtraction factor K derived
empirically. In 3D mode, the subtraction was applied to each pair of LE and HE slices after reconstruction. The x-ray
technique optimization was done with simulation and phantom study. We performed both phantom and patient studies to
demonstrate the advantage of iodine contrast imaging. Among several new things in our work, a selenium detector
optimized for DE imaging was tested and a large dose advantage was demonstrated; 2D and 3D DE images of a breast
under same compression were acquired with a unique DE combo mode of the system, allowing direct image quality
comparison between 2D and 3D modes. Our study showed that new DE system achieved good image quality. DE
imaging is be a promising modality to detect breast cancer.
A new generation of digital breast tomosynthesis system has been designed and is commercially available outside the US.
The system has both a 2D mode and a 3D mode to do either conventional mammography or tomosynthesis. Uniquely, it
also has a fusion mode that allows both 3D and 2D images to be acquired under the same breast compression, which results in co-registered images from the two modalities. The aim of this paper is to present a technical description on the design and performance of the new system, including system details such as filter options, doses, AEC operation, 2D and 3D images co-registration and display, and the selenium detector performance. We have carried out both physical and clinical studies to evaluate the system. In this paper the focus will be mainly on technical performance results.
The performance optimization of tomosynthesis is very challenging as it involves multiple system parameters to be
optimized towards multiple figures of merit (FOM). Common approach is to take a selected few FOMs and optimize
them under more confined conditions. While this kind of study helps us to gain more insights, extra precautions are
needed when one tries to generalize the conclusions. Several reported works have shown that increasing the scan angle
improves the contrast to noise ratio (CNR), which made the authors conclude that from the CNR perspective, large scan
angle has advantages over small angle in tomosynthesis.
In this study, we investigated the dependence of CNR on the scan angle while other system parameters were fixed. We
found that improvement of CNR with large scan angle in those published studies was actually due to reconstruction
algorithm and associated filtering effect but not due to the scan angle itself. To reveal this property, we selected six
filters to cover a board range of possible shapes, and showed CNR variations with different filters. Besides, we also
studied the ML-EM and SART iterative reconstruction algorithms, and obtained their equivalent Fourier filters
numerically. The change of the equivalent filter shapes of iterative methods at different scan angle explained the
observed CNR dependence on the scan angles. We conclude that larger scan angle does not have any intrinsic CNR
advantage over small one in tomosynthesis. The observed CNR gain at large angle is an effect from the reconstruction
filters. Therefore CNR based optimization study need to be carried out without the potential bias from filters.
A prototype breast tomosynthesis system has been developed, allowing a total angular view of ±25°. The detector used in this system is an amorphous selenium direct-conversion digital flat-panel detector suitable for digital tomosynthesis. The system is equipped with various readout sequences to allow the investigation of different tomosynthetic data acquisition modes. In this paper, we will present basic physical properties -- such as MTF, NPS, and DQE -- measured for the full resolution mode and a binned readout mode of the detector. From the measured projections, slices are reconstructed employing a special version of filtered backprojection algorithm. In a phantom study, we compare binned and full resolution acquisition modes with respect to image quality. Under the condition of same dose, we investigate the impact of the number of views on artifacts. Finally, we show tomosynthesis images reconstructed from first clinical data.
In this paper, two new selenium large area detectors are introduced. The first detector is a 24x30cm detector suitable for full-field digital mammography applications. The second detector is a new 43x43cm detector for general radiographic applications. Both detectors are capable of static and dynamic imaging, and are quantum noise limited over the exposure ranges intended for their typical use. For static imaging applications, ghost and lag were compared on both detectors, and no measurable artefacts were reported. On dynamic imaging sequences, lag was shown to be significant on both detectors, and a method for reducing the artifact due to lag was presented.
The advent of digital detectors will enable several advanced imaging applications to be used in the fight against breast cancer. For example, dynamic imaging applications such as tomosynthesis, contrast enhanced and dual energy mammography have demonstrated promising results. In this paper, we will assess the suitability of this detector for these advanced applications. MTF and DQE measurements were performed on a selenium FFDM detector to assess image quality. Ghosting properties of a digital detector are also an important factor, since it can strongly degrade image quality. In this paper, we will also report on the ghosting characteristics of the selenium detector, using typical exposures envisioned to be used in tomosynthesis exams. The physical mechanisms that create ghost images will be discussed and will be quantified.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Modulation transfer functions, Selenium, Mammography, X-rays, Signal to noise ratio, Photons, Prototyping, Digital mammography, Image resolution
A selenium-based flat-panel direct converter detector suitable for digital mammography was developed. The detector is based on a TFT-array with a resolution of 2816 X 2048 pixels, and a pixel pitch of 85 micrometers . Although the geometric fill factor for each pixel is around 70% , the effective fill factor for the detector is closer to 88% due to internal electric field shaping within the selenium layer. A selenium multilayer p-i-n structure of 200 micrometers was deposited onto the array by selectively doping the regions near each contact to produce unipolar conducting blocking layers. This structure absorbs more than 95% of a typical mammography beam.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Image quality, Selenium, Digital mammography, Digital imaging, Modulation transfer functions, Signal to noise ratio, Quantum efficiency, X-rays, Mammography
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the image quality of a selenium-based flat panel detector suited for digital interventional mammography. To characterize the image quality, the DQE was measured at various x-ray exposures. The results indicate that when the detector is quantum noise limited, the DQE is independent of the exposure. A measurement of the quantum detection efficiency of 90% indicates that an electrostatic field shaping effect within the selenium layer gives a greater collection efficiency than that predicted simply by the geometric fill factor of each pixel collection electrode. Measurements were also conducted to determine the relative strength of ghost images on the detector. An image of a high contrast object using an exposure of 183 mR was acquired, followed by a low exposure 6 mR flat field image. No visual indication of a ghost could be found in the latter image even after appropriate windowing and leveling of the image was performed. A subjective comparison of image quality between film/screen and the detector was conducted by acquiring images of the ACR phantom under various exposure conditions. The digital images were printed on film using optimally adjusted LUT's. The resulting images were randomly presented to 15 non-trained observers, who assessed a score for each image. The comparison results show that the image quality obtained with the digital detector is superior to the images acquired with film/screen.
The use of selenium alloys for direct conversion fluoroscopy flat-panel detectors has been underestimated. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the salient features of a selenium-based detector designed for R&F applications. The detector has an active area of 30 cm X 27 cm and comprises 2048 X 1792 pixels at 150 micrometer pitch. The geometric fill factor is 66%, but experimental evidence supports the fact that internal electric field bending leads to an effective fill factor approaching unity. The detector is designed to support full resolution images at 15 frames/second, and 896 X 1024 resolution at 30 frames/second. The detector is coated with a simple coplanar 'p-i-n' selenium diode structure which has a dark current less than 100 pA/cm2. The thickness of this structure is 1000 micrometer to absorb 77% of a NEMA standard fluoroscopy beam. Measurements show we have obtained an x-ray sensitivity of 4400pC/mR/cm2, which translates to 1212 collected charges per absorbed x-ray. Resolution was measured to be near the theoretically predicted values, with a modulation of 63% at the Nyquist limit of 3.33 lp/mm. Phantom images were obtained at a frame rate of 15 frames per second, and negligible lag was observed in this image sequence.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Selenium, X-rays, Modulation transfer functions, Digital mammography, Absorption, Mammography, Electronics, Signal to noise ratio, Prototyping
In this paper, we report measurements from a prototype 1024 X 1024 selenium-based flat panel detector suited for interventional digital mammography applications. This detector is based on an amorphous silicon TFT array, with a pixel pitch of 85 micrometer and a fill factor of 70%. A 200 micrometer layer of amorphous selenium is used to directly convert the incident x-rays into electrical charges. The detector electronics, TFT array, and selenium converter structure are designed to operate at a frame rate of 10 images per second. Experimentally, this detector yields an x-ray sensitivity of nearly 290 electrons/absorbed x-ray nearly 100% absorption of x-rays at a beam energy of 18 keV, a high spatial resolution (limited only by the pixel pitch up to the Nyquist limit), and quantum-noise limited operation down to the lowest exposures currently investigated. Images from the ACR phantom and contrast detail phantom reveal all embedded targets in the phantoms, which indicates the potential of this technology for digital mammography.
Digital x-ray imaging techniques of today require electronic detectors that can be applied to all modalities of medical imaging. This paper presents work showing that selenium, when used as a direct converter, can be competitive with present day scintillator technologies targeting mammographic, radiographic and fluoroscopic applications. In this work, supporting results are presented on the dark currents, lag and ghosting effects and also on the theoretical and experimental x-ray absorption and sensitivity of selenium layers. Measurements were carried out on suitably alloyed selenium layers where the electronic transport properties have been optimized. Measured values for dark currents were below 100 pA/cm2 at operating fields up to 20 V/micrometer. Experimental measurement of the intrinsic lag in selenium has shown it to be less than 0.5% after 30 milliseconds under a dose of 50 mR at 55 keV mean beam energy, which is very low compared with present day image intensifiers. Similar measurements on ghosting, using multiple radiographic pulses, indicate that the magnitude of the ghost image after a few seconds is around 2000 electrons, which is comparable to the electronic noise of most read out systems. Measured sensitivity of a 200 micrometer selenium layer under a mammographic spectrum was around 230 pC/mR/cm2 at an operating field of 20 V/micrometer, which is significantly higher than that reported for competing technologies. Sensitivity for 1000 micrometer selenium was also measured with an 80 kVp spectrum and 20 mm Al filtration and was found to be around 3400 pC/mR/cm2 which is in close agreement with theoretically calculated values. Theoretical estimations for MTF and DQE are also given to assess the potential imaging performance of a selenium-based detector for various applications.
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