Previously, we reported a framework capable of simulating classical transmission systems and QKD based on weak-coherent prepare-and-measure protocols. The framework’s modular architecture provides a rich library of models for various system components (e.g., lasers, modulators, fibers). QKD components include singlephoton detectors, transmitter- and receiver designs, and performance estimators. For realistic system designs, component models can account for various imperfections (e.g., laser model with linewidth, RIN, side modes). Here, we present further developments of the framework and its applications. We applied our simulation tool to investigate a satellite-based BB84 system in the downlink scenario. For fiber-based applications in a coexistence scenario, we studied the usage of multicore fibers to better separate classical and quantum channels, and various PON configurations. The system performance was estimated by analyzing the QBER dependence on the classical channel power due to Raman scattering. Furthermore, we discuss the simulation results of a Gaussian-modulated CV-QKD system with a realistic model of a true local oscillator. We studied how the utilization of DSP techniques improves the system’s performance. We evaluated the secret key rate for different transmission distances.
Due to their compatibility to existing telecom technology, continuous variable (CV) weak coherent state protocols are promising candidates for a broad deployment of quantum key distribution (QKD) technology. We demonstrate how an existing simulation framework for modelling classical optical systems can be utilized for simulations of weak-coherent CV-QKD links. Having complemented the physical simulation layer by the post-processing layer (reconciliation and privacy amplification), we are able to estimate secure key rates from simulations, greatly boosting the development speed of practical CV-QKD schemes and implementations.
As the demand for higher precision optics grows, commercially available manufacturing options are needed to meet the stringent requirements requested by optical designers. Short radius concave optics have been a challenge for optical manufacturers as sub-aperture polishing tools that are small enough to accommodate the shape of the optic have not been available. Until recently, the smallest MRF wheel was 20 mm in diameter, which allowed polishing a minimum concave radius of approximately 14 mm. With the newly developed 10 mm diameter MRF wheel, we can push the previous MRF boundaries to accommodate even shorter concave radii. Not only does this tool extend the concave radius limits of MRF technology, but it also improves the efficiency of correcting mid-spatial frequency errors. As the removal function, or ‘spot’, becomes smaller we can make corrections to errors with higher spatial frequencies. In addition, the geometry of the wheel and the size of the removal function provide further benefits that will be explained. This module was designed to be compatible with any machine within QED Technologies’ Q-flex family of MRF equipment.
For over 20 years, QED Technologies has been expanding the size and functionality of its MRF precision polishing product line. We have recently refreshed our meter-class platforms, developed a custom MRF upgrade for a customer’s existing 3-meter platform, and have begun development on a new half-meter platform. With the demand for new land, air and space-based imaging systems increasing, there is a growing need for optics with diameters larger than 8-12" (200- 300 mm). Our latest QED.NET software, pad polishing, multi-part batch polishing and our electronic fluid measuring system are just some of the new or updated capabilities integrated in our latest large-format MRF platforms. We refreshed the Q22-750P2 platform, which is optimized for plano polishing with two fixed MRF heads for fast changeover between wheel sizes. We expanded the capability of our Q22-950F polishing center, and now offer the Q22-1200 in its place. This platform can be ordered in four different configurations to meet a wide range of capability and price points. We have begun the development of the Q22-600 – a platform to fill the gap between the Q22-1200 and our Q-flex 300. In this paper we will review and contrast the capabilities of these new large-format platforms and present results to illustrate these capabilities.
Recent advances in polishing and metrology have addressed many of the challenges in the fabrication and metrology of freeform surfaces, and the manufacture of these surfaces is possible today. However, achieving the form and mid-spatial frequency (MSF) specifications that are typical of visible imaging systems remains a challenge. Interferometric metrology for freeform surfaces is thus highly desirable for such applications, but the capability is currently quite limited for freeforms. In this paper, we provide preliminary results that demonstrate accurate, high-resolution measurements of freeform surfaces using prototype software on QED’s ASI™ (Aspheric Stitching Interferometer).
Many optical system designs rely on high numerical aperture (NA) optics, including lithography and defense systems. Lithography systems require high-NA optics to image the fine patterns from a photomask, and many defense systems require the use of domes. The methods for manufacturing such optics with large half angles have often been treated as proprietary by most manufacturers due to the challenges involved. In the past, many high-NA concave surfaces could not be polished by magnetorheological finishing (MRF) due to collisions with the hardware underneath the polishing head. By leveraging concepts that were developed to enable freeform raster MRF capabilities, QED Technologies has implemented a novel toolpath to facilitate a new high-NA rotational MRF mode. This concept involves the use of the B-axis (rotational axis) in combination with a “virtual-axis” that utilizes the geometry of the polishing head. Hardware collisions that previously restricted the concave half angle limit can now be avoided and the new functionality has been seamlessly integrated into the software. This new MRF mode overcomes past limitations for polishing concave surfaces to now accommodate full concave hemispheres as well as extend the capabilities for full convex hemispheres. We discuss some of the previous limitations, and demonstrate the extended capabilities using this novel toolpath. Polishing results are used to qualify the new toolpath to ensure similar results to the “standard” rotational MRF mode.
This paper describes the manufacturing steps necessary to manufacture hemispherical concave aspheric mirrors for high- NA systems. The process chain is considered from generation to final figuring and includes metrology testing during the various manufacturing steps. Corning Incorporated has developed this process by taking advantage of recent advances in commercially available Satisloh and QED Technologies equipment. Results are presented on a 100 mm concave radius nearly hemispherical (NA = 0.94) fused silica sphere with a better than 5 nm RMS figure. Part interferometric metrology was obtained on a QED stitching interferometer. Final figure was made possible by the implementation of a high-NA rotational MRF mode recently developed by QED Technologies which is used at Corning Incorporated for production. We also present results from a 75 mm concave radius (NA = 0.88) Corning ULE sphere that was produced using sub-aperture tools from generation to final figuring. This part demonstrates the production chain from blank to finished optics for high-NA concave asphere.
Aspherical lenses offer advantages over spherical optics by improving image quality or reducing the number of elements necessary in an optical system. Aspheres are no longer being used exclusively by high-end optical systems but are now replacing spherical optics in many applications. The need for a method of production-manufacturing of precision aspheres has emerged and is part of the reason that the optics industry is shifting away from artisan-based techniques towards more deterministic methods. Not only does Magnetorheological Finishing (MRF) empower deterministic figure correction for the most demanding aspheres but it also enables deterministic and efficient throughput for series production of aspheres. The Q-flex MRF platform is designed to support batch production in a simple and user friendly manner. Thorlabs routinely utilizes the advancements of this platform and has provided results from using MRF to finish a batch of aspheres as a case study. We have developed an analysis notebook to evaluate necessary specifications for implementing quality control metrics. MRF brings confidence to optical manufacturing by ensuring high throughput for batch processing of aspheres.
As applications for freeform optics continue to grow, the need for high-precision metrology is becoming more of a necessity. Currently, coordinate measuring machines (CMM) that implement touch probes or optical probes can measure the widest ranges of shapes of freeform optics, but these measurement solutions often lack sufficient lateral resolution and accuracy. Subaperture stitching interferometry (SSI™) extends traditional Fizeau interferometry to provide accurate, high-resolution measurements of flats, spheres, and aspheres, and development is currently on-going to enable measurements of freeform surfaces. We will present recent freeform metrology results, including repeatability and cross-test data. We will also present MRF® polishing results where the stitched data was used as the input “hitmap” to the deterministic polishing process.
NEXCERATM cordierite ceramics, which have ultra-low thermal expansion properties, are perfect candidate materials to be used for light-weight satellite mirrors that are used for geostationary earth observation and for mirrors used in ground-based astronomical metrology. To manufacture the high precision aspheric shapes required, the deterministic aspherization and figure correction capabilities of Magnetorheological Finishing (MRF) are tested. First, a material compatibility test is performed to determine the best method for achieving the lowest surface roughness of RMS ~0.8nm on plano surfaces made of NEXCERATM ceramics. Secondly, we will use MRF to perform high precision figure correction and to induce a hyperbolic shape into a conventionally polished 100mm diameter sphere.
Many astronomical sensing applications operate in low-light conditions; for these applications every photon counts. Controlling mid-spatial frequencies and surface roughness on astronomical optics are critical for mitigating scattering effects such as flare and energy loss. By improving these two frequency regimes higher contrast images can be collected with improved efficiency. Classically, Magnetorheological Finishing (MRF) has offered an optical fabrication technique to correct low order errors as well has quilting/print-through errors left over in light-weighted optics from conventional polishing techniques. MRF is a deterministic, sub-aperture polishing process that has been used to improve figure on an ever expanding assortment of optical geometries, such as planos, spheres, on and off axis aspheres, primary mirrors and freeform optics. Precision optics are routinely manufactured by this technology with sizes ranging from 5-2,000mm in diameter. MRF can be used for form corrections; turning a sphere into an asphere or free form, but more commonly for figure corrections achieving figure errors as low as 1nm RMS while using careful metrology setups.
Recent advancements in MRF technology have improved the polishing performance expected for astronomical optics in low, mid and high spatial frequency regimes. Deterministic figure correction with MRF is compatible with most materials, including some recent examples on Silicon Carbide and RSA905 Aluminum. MRF also has the ability to produce ‘perfectly-bad’ compensating surfaces, which may be used to compensate for measured or modeled optical deformation from sources such as gravity or mounting. In addition, recent advances in MRF technology allow for corrections of mid-spatial wavelengths as small as ~1mm simultaneously with form error correction. Efficient midspatial frequency corrections make use of optimized process conditions including raster polishing in combination with a small tool size. Furthermore, a novel MRF fluid, called C30, has been developed to finish surfaces to ultra-low roughness (ULR) and has been used as the low removal rate fluid required for fine figure correction of mid-spatial frequency errors. This novel MRF fluid is able to achieve <4Å RMS on Nickel-plated Aluminum and even <1.5Å RMS roughness on Silicon, Fused Silica and other materials. C30 fluid is best utilized within a fine figure correction process to target mid-spatial frequency errors as well as smooth surface roughness 'for free' all in one step.
In this paper we will discuss recent advancements in MRF technology and the ability to meet requirements for precision optics in low, mid and high spatial frequency regimes and how improved MRF performance addresses the need for achieving tight specifications required for astronomical optics.
Advanced optical systems are more and more demanding in terms of resolution, imaging quality and speed of capture. Controlling mid-spatial frequencies and surface roughness on these optics is critical for mitigating scattering effects such as flare and energy loss. By improving these two frequency regimes, higher contrast images can be collected with improved efficiency and lower distortion.
Classically, Magnetorheological Finishing (MRF) is implemented in production to correct low order errors generated by conventional polishing techniques on planos, spheres, on- and off-axis aspheres and freeform optics achieving figure errors as low as 1nm RMS while using careful metrology setups. MRF is also used routinely to turn a sphere into an asphere or freeform, or to print high resolution wavefront corrective patterns on optical surfaces to compensate for system errors or bulk material inhomogeneity.
Recent advancements enable correction of mid-spatial wavelengths as small as ∼1mm and smoothing of surface roughness to ∼1Å RMS. Using these new developments combined with correction of low order form error have improved MRF performance to manufacture higher precision optics with respect to the mid- and high-spatial frequency regimes.
Efficient mid-spatial frequency corrections utilize optimized process conditions; raster polishing with a small tool size. Furthermore, a novel MRF fluid, called C30, can finish surfaces to ultra-low roughness (ULR) and its low removal rate is optimal for fine figure correction of mid-spatial frequency errors. C30 MRF fluid is able to achieve <1.5Å RMS roughness on Silicon, CaF2, Fused Silica, glass and other materials. It is best utilized within a fine figure correction process to target mid-spatial frequency errors as well as smooth surface roughness ‘for free’ all in one step.
These expanded capabilities of MRF technology are well suited for producing high precision optics to be used for industrial, medical or semiconductor optics.
An increasing number of technologies require ultra-low roughness (ULR) surfaces. Magnetorheological Finishing (MRF) is one of the options for meeting the roughness specifications for high-energy laser, EUV and X-ray applications. A novel MRF fluid, called C30, has been developed to finish surfaces to ULR. This novel MRF fluid is able to achieve <1.5Å RMS roughness on fused silica and other materials, but has a lower material removal rate with respect to other MRF fluids. As a result of these properties, C30 can also be used for applications in addition to finishing ULR surfaces. These applications include fine figure correction, figure correcting extremely soft materials and removing cosmetic defects. The effectiveness of these new applications is explored through experimental data. The low removal rate of C30 gives MRF the capability to fine figure correct low amplitude errors that are usually difficult to correct with higher removal rate fluids. The ability to figure correct extremely soft materials opens up MRF to a new realm of materials that are difficult to polish. C30 also offers the ability to remove cosmetic defects that often lead to failure during visual quality inspections. These new applications for C30 expand the niche in which MRF is typically used for.
As EUV Lithography (EUVL) continues to evolve, it offers a possible solution to the problems of additional masks
and lithography steps that drive up the cost and complexity of 193i multiple patterning. EUVL requires a non-telecentric
reflective optical system for operation. This requirement causes EUV specific effects such as shadowing. The absorber
physically shadows the reflective multilayer (ML) on an EUV reticle resulting in pattern fidelity degradation. To reduce
this degradation, a thinner absorber may help. Yet, as the absorber thickness decreases, reflectivity increases in the ‘dark’
region around the image field, resulting in a loss of contrast. The region around the edge of the die on the mask of unpatterned
absorber material deposited on top of ML, known as the image border, is also susceptible to undesirable
reflections in an ideally dark region. For EUVL to be enabled for high-volume manufacturing (HVM), reticle masking
(REMA) blades are used to shield light from the image border to allow for the printing of densely spaced die. When die
are printed densely, the image border of each neighboring die will overlap with the edge of a given die resulting in an
increase of dose that overexposes features at the edge of the field. This effect is convolved with a fingerprint from the
edge of the REMA blades. This phenomenon will be referred to as a field edge effect.
One such mitigation strategy that has been investigated to reduce the field edge effect is to fully remove the ML
along the image border to ensure that no actinic-EUV radiation can be reflected onto neighboring die. This has proven to
suppress the effect, but residual out-of-band radiation still provides additional dose to features near the image border,
especially in the corners where three neighboring fields overlap. Measurements of dense contact holes (CHs) have been
made along the image border with and without a ML-etched border at IMEC in collaboration with Micron using the
ASML NXE:3100. The implementation of these measurements allow for further mitigation, i.e., compensation by OPC.
Mentor Graphics’ Calibre software uses the scanner’s point spread function and convolves it with the mask layout to
generate a flare map. It also has the capability to add additional dose to the image border which can be optimized to fit
the experimental data. This includes the transition region between the image field and border that results in a linear rolloff
of dose due to partial shadowing of the REMA blades. By applying this flaremap that accounts for neighboring die to
the already calibrated optical and resist models, OPC can now be enabled to compensate for field edge effects.
This study has two goals. First, we will show that OPC can be used to compensate both for field edge effects with
and without a etched ML border. The second is to investigate the limitations that exist for OPC in the areas altered by
neighboring die. This will predict when a process to mitigate the field edge effect is needed to enable EUV HVM.
We verify image fidelity after mask 3D aware-OPC (using Mentor Graphics Domain Decomposition Method) and quantify pattern placement error (PPE) on wafer. First we show experimental pattern fidelity improvement of DDM-OPCed 2D-images of logic devices in 10 nm technology node with the latest NXE3300B EUV exposure tool. We then compare pattern fidelity in aerial images after DDM-OPC to aerial images using rigorous simulation of electric and magnetic field. Finally we quantify PPE in resist images with modeled 1D layouts after a perfect OPC. The perfect OPC corrects optical proximity effect, azimuthal angle through slit, and lens aberration. The forecasted PPE residual error after perfect OPC is 0.21 nm (x) and 0.76 nm (y) that can be attributed to uncorrectable components of wafer defocus and mask flatness. For modeling and compensation of pattern placement error, a new metrology method should be developed.
The roughness present on the sidewalls of lithographically defined patterns imposes a very important challenge for advanced technology nodes. It can originate from the aerial image or the photoresist chemistry/processing [1]. The latter remains to be the dominant group in ArF and KrF lithography; however, the roughness originating from the mask transferred to the aerial image is gaining more attention [2-9], especially for the imaging conditions with large mask error enhancement factor (MEEF) values. The mask roughness contribution is usually in the low frequency range, which is particularly detrimental to the device performance by causing variations in electrical device parameters on the same chip [10-12]. This paper explains characteristic differences between pupil plane filtering in amplitude and in phase for the purpose of mitigating mask roughness transfer under interference-like lithography imaging conditions, where onedirectional periodic features are to be printed by partially coherent sources. A white noise edge roughness was used to perturbate the mask features for validating the mitigation.
Extreme UV Lithography (EUVL) is generally accepted as the leading candidate for next generation lithography. Several
challenges remain for EUVL, especially as its insertion point is pushed to finer resolution. Although diffractive scaling
may suggest a transition to shorter EUVL wavelengths, several issues arise that would make that difficult. Challenges
involve issues such as flare, multilayer (ML) bandwidth, and reflector throughput which tend to worsen with decreasing
wavelength. In this study, we have evaluated the tradeoff between flare scaling effects and diffractive scaling effects for
EUVL, where flare induced image degradation is likely to dominate as sub-13.5 nm wavelengths are considered. With
surface scatter effects scaling as 1/λ2, the idea of longer wavelength (LW-EUVL) becomes interesting. Since a working
wavelength is driven by the selection of ML materials (which are molybdenum and silicon for 13.5 nm), the
identification of suitable alternatives is an initial challenge. We have optimized aluminum and various refractory metals
at 17.2 nm and present results. The optimized combination of aluminum with yttrium, zirconium, and other metals result
in theoretical reflectivity values above 75%. We also describe possibilities for alternative LW-EUVL sources for
17.2 nm operation as well as the impact on resist absorption, especially through halogens of higher molar absorption
(such as fluorine). The impact on mask absorber materials is also presented, which may also exhibit increased
absorbance, leading to a lowering of film thickness requirements.
The Rochester Imaging Detector Laboratory, University of Rochester, Infotonics Technology Center, and Jet Process
Corporation developed a hybrid silicon detector with an on-chip sigma-delta (ΣΔ) ADC. This paper describes the process
and reports the results of developing a fabrication process to robustly produce high-quality bump bonds to hybridize a
back-illuminated detector with its ΣΔ ADC. The design utilizes aluminum pads on both the readout circuit and the
photodiode array with interconnecting indium bumps between them. The development of the bump bonding process is
discussed, including specific material choices, interim process structures, and final functionality. Results include
measurements of bond integrity, cross-wafer uniformity of indium bumps, and effects of process parameters on the final
product. Future plans for improving the bump bonding process are summarized.
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