With the expanding integration of infrared instruments in astronomical missions, accurate per-pixel flux estimation for near-infrared hybrid detectors has become critical to the success of these missions. Based on CPPM’s involvement in both SVOM/Colibri and Euclid missions, this study introduces universally applicable methods and framework for characterizing IR hybrid detectors and decorrelating their intrinsic properties. The characterization framework, applied to the ALFA detector and Euclid’s H2RG, not only validates the proposed methods but also points out subtle behaviors inherent to each detector.
The X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) instrument is the high-resolution X-ray spectrometer of the ESA Athena X-ray Observatory. X-IFU will deliver spectra from 0.2 to 12 keV with a spectral resolution requirement of 4 eV (3 eV design goal) up to 7 keV from 5" pixels, with a hexagonal field of view of 4' equivalent diameter. The main sensor array and its associated detection chain is one of the major functional chains of the X-IFU instrument, and is the main contributor to XIFU performance. CNES (Centre National d’Études Spatiales) is the prime contractor for the X-IFU and leads the project development and procurement aspects within the X-IFU Consortium; additional major partners of the main detection chain are NASA-GFSC, SRON, VTT, APC, NIST, IRAP, and IAP. The detection chain design for X-IFU has evolved in the past few years in order to secure the performances and development costs, in the frame of the New Athena mission. New TES pixels are implemented with slower time constant and a reduced sensitivity to magnetic field. The slower time constant directly allows an increase of the MUX factor and a reduction of the number of channels, together with the decrease of the number of proximity electronics boxes, or warm front end electronics (WFEE). The cryostat outer vessel temperature is now a 50 K thermal interface, cooled passively thanks to L-shaped thermal shield (L-grooves). This has a direct impact of the cryo-harness between the 4 K core interface and the WFEE interface. In the past years, we have performed early demonstration on the critical components in order to secure the detection chain design and performances. This paper presents the progress done on early demonstrations (warm electronics, cryo-harness breadboarding,...), while providing an update to the detection-chain design description.
The X-IFU (x-ray integral field unit) onboard the large ESA mission Athena (advanced telescope for high energy astrophysics), planned to be launched in the mid 2030s, will be a cryogenic x-ray imaging spectrometer operating at 55 mK. It will provide unprecedented spatially resolved high-resolution spectroscopy (2.5 eV FWHM up to 7 keV) in the 0.2-12 keV energy range thanks to its array of TES (transition edge sensors) microcalorimeters of more than 2k pixel. The detection chain of the instrument is developed by an international collaboration: the detector array by NASA/GSFC, the cold electronics by NIST, the cold amplifier by VTT, the WFEE (warm front-end electronics) by APC, the DRE (digital readout electronics) by IRAP and a focal plane assembly by SRON. To assess the operation of the complete readout chain of the X-IFU, a 50 mK test bench based on a kilo-pixel array of microcalorimeters from NASA/GSFC has been developed at IRAP in collaboration with CNES. Validation of the test bench has been performed with an intermediate detection chain entirely from NIST and Goddard. Next planned activities include the integration of DRE and WFEE prototypes in order to perform an end-to-end demonstration of a complete X-IFU detection chain.
The x-ray integral field unit (X-IFU) instrument is the high-resolution x-ray spectrometer of the ESA Athena x-ray observatory. X-IFU will deliver spectra from 0.2 to 12 keV with a spectral resolution of 2.5 eV up to 7 keV from 5" pixels, with a hexagonal field of view of 5' equivalent diameter. The main sensor array and its associated detection chain is one of the major sub-systems of the X-IFU instrument, and is the main contributor to X-IFU’s performance. CNES (the French Space Agency) is leading the development of X-IFU; additional major partners are NASA-GFSC, SRON, VTT, APC, NIST, and IRAP. This paper updates the B-phase definition of the X-IFU detection chain. The readout is based on time-division multiplexing (TDM). The different sub-components of the detection chain (the main sensor array, the cold electronics stages, and the warm electronics) require global design optimization in order to achieve the best performance. The detection chain’s sensitivity to the EMI/EMC environment requires detailed analysis and implementation of dedicated design solutions. This paper focuses on these aspects while providing an update to the detection-chain design description.
CAGIRE is the near infrared camera of the Colibrí robotic telescope, designed for the follow-up of SVOM alerts, mainly Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs), and the quick imaging of sky regions where transient sources are detected by the SVOM satellite. CAGIRE is based on the Astronomical Large Format Array (ALFA) 2k x 2k SWIR sensor from the French consortium CEA-LYNRED. In the context of CAGIRE the sensor is operated in “Up the Ramp” mode to observe the sky in a square field of view of 21.7 arcmin on a side, in the range of wavelengths from 1.1 to 1.8 μm. An observation with CAGIRE consists of a series of short (1-2 minutes) exposures during which the pixels are read out every 1.3 second, continuously accumulating charges proportionally to the received flux, building a ramp.
The main challenge is to quickly process and analyse these ramps, in order to identify and study the near infrared counterparts of the bursts, within 5 minutes of the reception of an alert. Our preprocessing, which is under development, aims at providing reliable flux maps for the astronomy pipeline. It is based on a sequence of operations. First, calibration maps are used to identify saturated pixels, and for each pixel, the usable (non saturated) range of the ramp. Then, the ramps are corrected for the electronic common mode noise, and differential ramps are constructed. Finally, the flux is calculated from the differential ramps, using a previously calibrated map of pixel non-linearities. We present here the sequence of operations performed by the preprocessing, which are based on previous calibrations of the sensor response. These operations lead to the production of a flux map corrected from cosmic-rays hits, a map depicting the quality of the fit, a map of saturated pixels and a map of pixels hit by cosmic-rays, before the acquisition of the next ramp. These maps will be used by the astronomy pipeline to quickly extract the scientific results of the observations, like the identification of uncatalogued or quickly variable sources that could be GRB afterglows.
We present a test platform for the Athena X-IFU detection chain, shared between IRAP and CNES. This test bench, housed in a commercial two-stage ADR cryostat provided by Entropy GmbH, will serve as the first demonstration of the representative end-to-end readout chain for the X-IFU, using prototypes of the future flight electronics and currently available subsystems. The focal plane array (FPA), placed at the 50 mK cold stage of the ADR, includes a 1024-pixel array of transition-edge sensor (TES) microcalorimeter spectrometers provided by NASA/GSFC, superconducting amplifiers (SQUIDs) from VTT, as well as superconducting readout electronics for frequency domain multiplexing (FDM), provided by SRON. The detection chain then continues with the prototype room temperature electronics for the X-IFU: the Warm Front-End Electronics (WFEE, provided by APC) and the Digital Readout Electronics (DRE, provided by IRAP). The test bench yields critical feedback on current subsystem designs and electronic interfaces, and in the future will also be used for refining the X-IFU calibration plan as well as laboratory astrophysics experiments relevant to future X-IFU science. In this presentation, we describe the characterization of the cryostat, various design trades for the FPA and readout chain, and recent results from our current setup.
CNES (French Space Agency) is in charge of the development of the X-IFU instrument for Athena. The main sensor array detection chain sub-system of the X-IFU instrument is one of the major sub-subsystem of the instrument, as the main contributor to the performance. This sub-system involves major partners of the X-IFU instrument, e.g GFSC, SRON, VTT, APC, and IRAP. The purpose of this paper is to present the baseline of the definition of the X-IFU detection chain in the frame at end of phase A/beginning of phase B. The readout is based on Time Domain Multiplexing (TDM). There are strong design issues which couple the different sub-components of the detection chain (the main sensor array, the cold electronics stages, and the warm electronics). The detection chain environment (thermal, mechanical and EMI/EMC environment) also requires a transverse analysis. This paper focuses on those aspects while providing design description of the sub-components of the detection chain.
The X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) is the high resolution X-ray spectrometer of the ESA Athena X-ray observatory. Over a field of view of 5’ equivalent diameter, it will deliver X-ray spectra from 0.2 to 12 keV with a spectral resolution of 2.5 eV up to 7 keV on ∼ 5” pixels. The X-IFU is based on a large format array of super-conducting molybdenum-gold Transition Edge Sensors cooled at ∼ 90 mK, each coupled with an absorber made of gold and bismuth with a pitch of 249 μm. A cryogenic anti-coincidence detector located underneath the prime TES array enables the non X-ray background to be reduced. A bath temperature of ∼ 50 mK is obtained by a series of mechanical coolers combining 15K Pulse Tubes, 4K and 2K Joule-Thomson coolers which pre-cool a sub Kelvin cooler made of a 3He sorption cooler coupled with an Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator. Frequency domain multiplexing enables to read out 40 pixels in one single channel. A photon interacting with an absorber leads to a current pulse, amplified by the readout electronics and whose shape is reconstructed on board to recover its energy with high accuracy. The defocusing capability offered by the Athena movable mirror assembly enables the X-IFU to observe the brightest X-ray sources of the sky (up to Crab-like intensities) by spreading the telescope point spread function over hundreds of pixels. Thus the X-IFU delivers low pile-up, high throughput (< 50%), and typically 10 eV spectral resolution at 1 Crab intensities, i.e. a factor of 10 or more better than Silicon based X-ray detectors. In this paper, the current X-IFU baseline is presented, together with an assessment of its anticipated performance in terms of spectral resolution, background, and count rate capability. The X-IFU baseline configuration will be subject to a preliminary requirement review that is scheduled at the end of 2018.
The X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) is an imaging microcalorimeter being developed for ESA's Athena X-ray observatory to providing high spectral resolution imaging between 0.2-12 keV, with moderate count-rate capability and a large field-of-view. The X-IFU focal plane assembly (FPA) will contain the instrument's large-format transition edge sensor (TES) microcalorimeter array and its superconducting readout electronics, plus a second TES detector, located behind the main sensor array, is used to detect high-energy cosmic rays and secondary particles passing through the sensor array and enable the rejection of false events that they generate in the sensor array's event list. A Kevlar thermal suspension is used to isolate the detectors at 55 mK from the 2 K environment of the X-IFU instrument cryostat's cold stage, while three layers of shielding are used to allow the detector's to achieve their low-noise performance in the expected on-ground and in-flight electromagnetic and microvibration environment. This paper will describe the preliminary design concept of the X-IFU focal plane assembly and its critical technology building blocks.
The X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) is a next generation microcalorimeter planned for launch onboard the Athena observatory. Operating a matrix of 3840 superconducting Transition Edge Sensors at 90 mK, it will provide unprecedented spectro-imaging capabilities (2.5 eV resolution, for a field of view of 5’) in the soft X-ray band (0.2 up to 12 keV), enabling breakthrough science. The definition of the instrument evolved along the phase A study and we present here an overview of its predicted performances and their modeling, illustrating how the design of the X-IFU meets its top-level scientific requirements. This article notably covers the energy resolution, count-rate capability, quantum efficiency and non X-ray background levels, highlighting their main drivers.
The PLEIADES-HR Earth observing satellites, under CNES development, combine a 0.7m resolution panchromatic channel, and a multispectral channel allowing a 2.8 m resolution, in 4 spectral bands. The 2 satellites will be placed on a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 695 km. The camera operates in push broom mode, providing images across a 20 km swath. This paper focuses on the specifications, design and performance of the TDI detectors developed by e2v technologies under CNES contract for the panchromatic channel. Design drivers, derived from the mission and satellite requirements, architecture of the sensor and measurement results for key performances of the first prototypes are presented.
The X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) on board the Advanced Telescope for High-ENergy Astrophysics (Athena) will provide spatially resolved high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy from 0.2 to 12 keV, with ~ 5" pixels over a field of view of 5 arc minute equivalent diameter and a spectral resolution of 2.5 eV up to 7 keV. In this paper, we first review the core scientific objectives of Athena, driving the main performance parameters of the X-IFU, namely the spectral resolution, the field of view, the effective area, the count rate capabilities, the instrumental background. We also illustrate the breakthrough potential of the X-IFU for some observatory science goals. Then we brie y describe the X-IFU design as defined at the time of the mission consolidation review concluded in May 2016, and report on its predicted performance. Finally, we discuss some options to improve the instrument performance while not increasing its complexity and resource demands (e.g. count rate capability, spectral resolution).
CNES (French Space Agency) continuously drives the development of detectors for Space based Astronomy. Several promising infrared HgCdTe technologies are being developed at CEA and Sofradir. This paper gives a status on these developments as well as an overview of the associated roadmap.
CNES (French Space Agency) continuously drives the development of detectors for Space based Astronomy. Several detector concepts are developped by French Laboratories, from far infrared to mm wavelength. This paper gives a status on these developments as well as an overview of the associated roadmap.
Sofradir is involved in the manufacturing of detectors which cover a large range of wavelengths in the infrared domain
from SWIR up to VLWIR for different kind of applications. Thus, different types of ROIC architectures are needed to
cover these various kind of applications and operating conditions.
As a major player of the infrared market, Sofradir has developed numerous ROIC with architectures enabling to answer
most of the infrared applications in tactical, commercial and space domains. Sofradir is now able to present a new
detector (384x288 with a 15 μm pitch) especially designed for very low flux applications in the SWIR domain (as
astronomy for example). This new ROIC has been developed with CNES support and includes a SFD (Source Follower
per Detectors) input stage enabling to achieve a high gain as well as a low readout noise and a vey low power
consumption.
In this paper, we will describe the architecture and functionalities of this new detector. Then, electro-optical
characterizations and results will be described. Finally, main applications of this kind of detectors will be presented.
Microbolometers Focal Plane Arrays (FPA) are uncooled infrared arrays suitable for the detection in the 8-14μm spectral
range. Standard products show attractive performances and are available at low cost. They can be consistently used for
space missions on microsatellites. A microbolometers focal plane array (a 640x480 microbolometer array with a pitch of
25 μm) is foreseen to be used on the Mistigri mission proposed by CNES (French National Space Agency). The
scientific objectives of the mission are the monitoring of water conditions of agricultural crops and natural vegetation.
These objectives can be reached thanks to observations in the thermal infrared wavelength. Mistigri is now at an early
stage of development (preliminary definition study). CNES has started a technological evaluation on the
microbolometers array as a risk mitigation action. This technological evaluation plan includes radiation tests (ionizing
dose, displacement damage, and heavy ions), lifetest, thermal cycling and vibrations and shocks. At the same time we
have addressed fine performances of the microbolometers arrays in order to optimize instrument design and
performances.
Bolometers cooled to very low temperature are currently the most sensitive detectors for low spectral resolution
detection of millimetre and sub-millimetre wavelengths. The best performances of the state-of-the-art bolometers allow
to reach sensitivities below the photon noise of the Cosmic Microwave Background for example. Since 2003, a french
R&D effort called DCMB ("Developpement Concerte de Matrices de Bolometres") has been organised between different
laboratories to develop large bolometers arrays for astrophysics observations. Funded by CNES and CNRS, it is intended
to get a coherent set of competences and equipments to develop very cold bolometers arrays by microfabrication. Two
parallel developments have been made in this collaboration based on the NbSi alloy either semi-conductive or
superconducting depending on the proportion of Nb. Multiplexing schemes have been developed and demonstrated for
these two options. I will present the latest developments made in the DCMB collaboration and future prospects.
IASI (Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer) is an infrared atmospheric sounder. The IASI instrument is
currently operating on the Metop-A satellite (launched in October 2006). The core of the instrument is composed of a
Fourier transform infrared spectrometer. The detection chain of the spectrometer includes 3 bands to cover the 3.4 to
15.5 μm spectral range. For each band, the IR detection is made by a 2 x 2 pixels array operating at ~93K. This paper
presents an analysis of the radiation tolerance of the infrared detectors for each band. On ground, radiation tests have
been performed to address sensitivity to gamma-rays and protons radiations. A special care has been taken to keep the
detectors at cold temperature during tests. Performance evolutions (responsivity, relative spectral response, noise,...
tested in CNES facilities) before and after radiations are given. First in orbit impacts of the radiations are also reviewed.
KEYWORDS: CCD image sensors, Charge-coupled devices, Optical filters, Sensors, Linear filtering, Prototyping, Interfaces, Stray light, Calibration, Signal to noise ratio
The PLEIADES-HR Earth Observing system combines a high resolution panchromatic channel (0.7 m at nadir) and a multispectral channel allowing a 2.8 m resolution. This paper presents the main characteristics of the sensor equipped with filters for the multispectral channel. A long quadrilinear CCD sensor has been coupled to four long stripe filters. The CCD device provides four lines of 1500 pixels with 52 microns pitch. Each line is associated to a long stripe filter and allows to cover spectral bands from blue to near infra red spectrum. Performances of this sub-assembly are analyzed. Pixel response non-uniformity and relative spectral response have been measured and compared to individual performances of the CCD and the filters. Impacts of instrument optical interfaces on these parameters are included in this analysis. Residual spatial noise performances related to spectral response dispersion are presented.
The FUEGO system is a remote sensing satellite constellation aimed at providing early fire alarms throughout the forest fire risk area of Europe and other temperate areas. An excellent revisit time (<16 min.) can be achieved from a low earth orbit constellation of 12 mini-satellites. Each mini-satellite carries infrared sensors in MIR, TIR, and VIS/NIR bands operating in push-broom mode and a depointing mirror to cover a large swath. This can ensure early detection of fire outbreaks with a 2500 km swath. This paper presents the thermal infrared (TIR) camera characteristics. The main purposes of the TIR channels are the discrimination of clouds and detection of forest fire false alarms during low light or night operation. The main requirements for the TIR camera are: spectral range 8 - 12 micrometers ; FOV equals +/- 7.2 degree(s) (177 km on ground); ground resolution 369 m; NETD < 0.4 K 300 K (blackbody temperature); large dynamic range of radiance (equivalent blackbody temperature 240 K to 380 K). The TIR pushbroom camera is built around an off-the- shelf SOFRADIR microbolometer FPA of 320 X 240 elements with a pitch of 45 micrometers . The focal plane is uncooled and operates at T equals 303 K. The paper details the tests performed on the engineering model of the camera. More particularly, radiometric characterization and MTF measurement are described. The demonstrated camera performance together with the low cost and complexity of the camera offer a large field of opportunities for future space applications.
The recent development of high performance uncooled infrared microbolometer arrays with detection limit (Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference) as low as 50 mK (f/1-60 Hz) offers a new challenge for the design of space instruments for Earth remote sensing. In this paper, we present results obtained on a 256x64 amorphous Silicon microbolometers array and on a 320x240 Vanadium Oxide (VOx) microbolometers array, from electro-optical characterizations performed at Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales. The goal of these measurements is to derive the performances of these arrays in order to study the feasibility of Earth remote sensing instruments using uncooled infrared microbolometer arrays. We find that a detection limit of approximately 0.16 K could be achieved at low spatial resolution, where the VOx microbolometer array is more adapted, due to relatively large time constant (approximately 23 ms). At medium spatial resolution, a detection limit of approximately 0.5 K could be achieved, with the amorphous Silicon microbolometer array.
A 1-5 micrometers astronomical infrared imaging camera, COMIC, is currently being developed for the ADONIS adaptive optics system, as a collaborative project of Observatoire de Paris and Observatoire de Grenoble under ESO (European Space Observatory) contract. This camera is based on a 128 by 128 HgCdTe/CCD array built by the CEA-LETI-LIR (Grenoble, France). Among its main characteristics, this detector offers a very high storage capacity of 3 106 e- with a total system read-out noise of about 600 e- which makes it particularly optimized for the 3-5 mum. COMIC will be installed in the fall of 1995 at the output focus of the ADONIS AO system on the ESO 3.6-m telescope at La Silla (Chile).
A 1-5 micron astronomical infrared imaging facility is currently under development at Observatoire de Grenoble for the ADONIS adaptive optics system, a collaborative project of Observatoire de Paris and Observatoire de Grenoble under ESO (European Southern Observatory) contract. This imaging detector will equip the camera to be installed at the F/45 output focus of the 3.6 m telescope operated by ESO at La Silla, Chile. The detector is a 128 X 128 HgCdTe/CCD array optimized in the 3-5 micron range, built by the CEA-LETI-LIR (Infrared Laboratory). The measured readout noise is less 450 electrons at a pixel readout rate of 415 kHz. The detector has a high storage capacity of 6.8 X 106 electrons yielding a dynamic range of about 84 dB. Such a high capacity is very useful, because adaptive optics allows large integration times up to a few minutes without degradation of the images by the atmospheric turbulence. Dark current is not a limitation for these large integration times even at an operation temperature of 77 K. A compact and versatile control electronics is being developed at the Observatoire de Grenoble. We will discuss the overall performances of the detector as well as the data acquisition and control systems built at Grenoble in the framework of astronomical imaging with adaptative optics techniques.
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