KEYWORDS: Sensors, Sensing systems, Microcontrollers, Energy harvesting, Telecommunications, Data acquisition, Acoustics, Fluid dynamics, Signal processing, Power supplies
The current technology push to connect everyday objects via the “internet of things” has fueled significant advances in low-power processing and communication devices. One aspect of these connected products that still needs attention is the means by which they are powered. An attractive and feasible option is the use of energy harvesting from acoustic fields. Previous work developing a piezoelectric energy harvesting device has generated 2.6 mW of power from a hydraulic test rig. This paper presents an implementation of an energy harvesting device connected to a communications system that allows it to store energy and communicate sensor readings via Bluetooth Low Energy.
Distributions of piezoelectric patches bonded to structures provide a means to alter or control, through active or passive means, the dynamic response of the host structure. Numerous active control schemes for such composite structures have been explored. Alternatively, for certain structures, a passive electrical network may be implemented which presents an electrical analog of the modal response of the structure, effectively providing a multi-modal, distributed passive tuned mass modal damper capability. Numerous tuned-mass damper design concepts (“tunings”) may be applied to such a passive network. Further, the distributed network analog, when coupled with active control concepts, permits a hybrid distributed passive-active modal control capability. This paper explores this hybrid distributed network control concept applied to a clamped rectangular plate. A unit-cell discrete representation of the plate leads to an electrical analog comprised of passive inductors, transformers and resistors. Addition of synthetic (or controlled) impedances at a limited set of points within the network permits dynamic adjustment of the frequency response of the system.
KEYWORDS: Acoustics, Energy harvesting, Sensors, Sensing systems, Fluid dynamics, Resistance, Data acquisition, Data transmission, Data communications, Wireless communications, Telecommunications
Energy harvesting from an acoustic field is challenging given the low energy density available in most acoustic phenomena. A notable exception is in the domain of pumped, pressurized fluids, where acoustic pressure amplitudes may be on the order of 5~10% of the mean static pressure, in some applications reaching mega-pascal amplitudes, corresponding to acoustic intensities advantageous for energy harvesting. However, the static pressures that are common within pressurized systems require mechanically robustness for pressure containment, which prevents the use of common energy harvester configurations. Nonetheless, energy densities may be high enough such that non-resonant configurations are feasible; and, the fact that the acoustic pressure within pumped systems typically has a relatively narrow band spectrum means that power conditioning circuits may be optimized for power conversion. With power available from the pumped fluid itself, through what is termed a Hydraulic Pressure Energy Harvester, it then becomes possible to implement self-powered wireless sensing nodes. This paper describes a proof-of-concept HPEH implementation and demonstration of a multi-functional self-powered wireless sensor for use in a hydraulic application.
Low-power vibration and acoustic energy harvesting scenarios typically require a storage component to be charged to enable wireless sensor networks, which necessitates power conditioning of the AC output. Piezoelectric beam-type bending mode energy harvesters or other devices that operate using a piezoelectric element at resonance produce high voltage levels, for which AC-DC converters and step-down DC-DC converters have been previously investigated. However, for piezoelectric stack energy harvesters operating off-resonance and producing low voltage outputs, a step-up circuit is required for power conditioning, such as seen in electromagnetic vibration energy scavengers, RF communications, and MEMS harvesters. This paper theoretically and experimentally investigates power conditioning of a low-voltage piezoelectric stack energy harvester.
Multimodal passive damping of a mechanical structure can be implemented by a coupling to a secondary structure exhibiting similar modal properties. When considering a piezoelectric coupling, the secondary structure is an electrical network. A suitable topology for such a network can be obtained by a finite difference formulation of the mechanical equations, followed by a direct electromechanical analogy. This procedure is applied to the Kirchhoff-Love theory in order to find the electrical analogue of a clamped plate. The passive electrical network is implemented with inductors, transformers and the inherent capacitance of the piezoelectric patches. The electrical resonances are tuned to approach those of several mechanical modes simultaneously. This yields a broadband reduction of the plate vibrations through the array of interconnected piezoelectric patches. The robustness of the control strategy is evaluated by introducing perturbations in the mechanical or electrical designs. A non-optimal tuning is considered by way of a uniform variation of the network inductance. Then, the effect of local or boundary modifications of the electromechanical system is observed experimentally. In the end, the use of an analogous electrical network appears as an efficient and robust solution for the multimodal control of a plate.
Hydraulic pressure energy harvesters (HPEH) are devices that convert the dynamic pressure within hydraulic systems into usable electrical power through axially loaded piezoelectric stacks excited off-resonance by the fluid. Within hydraulic systems, the dominant frequency is typically a harmonic of the pump operating frequency. The pressure fluctuations coupled with the piezoelectric stack can be amplified by creating a housing design that includes a Helmholtz resonator tuned to the dominant frequency of the fluid excitation. A Helmholtz resonator is an acoustic device that consists of a cavity coupled to a fluid medium via a neck, or in this case a port connection to the fluid flow, that acts as an amplifier when within the bandwidth of its resonance. The implementation of a piezoelectric stack within the HPEH allows for a Helmholtz resonator to be included within the fluidic environment despite the significantly higher than air static pressures typical of fluid hydraulic systems (on the order of one to tens of MPa). The resistive losses within the system, such as from energy harvesting and viscous losses, can also be used to increase the bandwidth of the resonance; thus increasing the utility of the device. This paper investigates the design, modeling, and performance of hydraulic pressure energy harvesters utilizing a Helmholtz resonator design.
A two-dimensional array of piezoelectric transducer (PZT) shunted on negative capacitance circuit is designed and applied to achieve broadband vibration reduction of a flexible plate over tunable frequency bands. Each surface-bonded patch is connected to a single independent negative capacitance synthetic circuit. A finite element-based design methodology is used to predict and optimize the attenuation properties of the smart structure. The predictions are then experimentally validated by measuring the harmonic response of the plate and evaluating some derived quantity such as the loss factor and the kinetic energy ratio. The validated model is finally used to explore different configurations with the aim of defining some useful design criteria.
Negative capacitance shunt damping is an effective broadband method for attenuating flexural vibration. However, proper selection of the location of the piezoelectric patches on a structure to maximize reduction has been an ongoing question in the field. Acoustic black holes are a recently developed concept to reduce vibrations on thin vibrating structures. By engineering the geometric or material properties of these thin structures, it is possible to minimize the reflected wave by gradually reducing the wave speed. However, the flexural wave speed cannot be reduced to zero on a realized structure. Therefore, when acoustic black holes are implemented, some of the incident wave energy is reflected because the wave speed must be truncated. Similarly due to the reduction in wave speed, the transverse velocity significantly increases within the acoustic black hole. It is therefore possible to add piezoelectric transducers to acoustic black hole regions on a structure to utilize negative capacitance shunt damping to address both of these issues. Consequently, the transducers are placed in the locations where the greatest control can be made and the reflected waves can be attenuated. The combination of negative capacitance shunt damping with acoustic black holes shows increased suppression of vibration over shunt damping alone.
A recent technological revolution in the fields of integrated MEMS has finally rendered possible the mechanical
integration of active smart materials, electronics and power supply systems for the next generation of smart
composite structures. Using a bi-dimensional array of electromechanical transducers, composed by piezo-patches
connected to a synthetic negative capacitance, it is possible to modify the dynamics of the underlying structure.
In this study, we present an application of the Floquet-Bloch theorem for vibroacoustic power flow optimization,
by means of distributed shunted piezoelectric material. In the context of periodically distributed damped 2D
mechanical systems, this numerical approach allows one to compute the multi-modal waves dispersion curves into
the entire first Brillouin zone. This approach also permits optimization of the piezoelectric shunting electrical
impedance, which controls energy diffusion into the proposed semi-active distributed set of cells. Furthermore,
we present experimental evidence that proves the effectiveness of the proposed control method. The experiment
requires a rectangular metallic plate equipped with seventy-five piezo-patches, controlled independently by electronic
circuits. More specifically, the out-of-plane displacements and the averaged kinetic energy of the controlled
plate are compared in two different cases (open-circuit and controlled circuit). The resulting data clearly show
how this proposed technique is able to damp and selectively reflect the incident waves.
Hydraulic pressure ripple energy harvesters generate low-power electricity from off-resonance dynamic pressure
excitation of piezoelectric elements. Improvements were made to hydraulic pressure ripple energy harvester prototype
performance. Hydraulic systems inherently have a high energy intensity associated with the mean pressure and flow.
Accompanying the mean pressure is dynamic pressure ripple, which is caused by the action of pumps and actuators.
Pressure ripple is generally a deterministic source with a periodic time-domain behavior conducive to energy harvesting.
An energy harvester prototype was designed for generating low-power electricity from pressure ripples. These devices
generate low-power electricity from off-resonance dynamic pressure excitation. The power produced per volume of
device was increased through decreasing the device size and adding an inductor to the system circuit. The prototype
device utilizes a piezoelectric stack with high overall capacitance allowing for inductance matching without using a
switching circuit. Initial testing with addition of an inductor produced over 2.1 mW, an increase of 78% as compared to
the device without the inductor. Two power output model simulations of a resistive-inductive circuit are analyzed: (1)
ideal circuit case and (2) non-ideal circuit case with inductor internal resistance included.
The control of vibrating structures using piezoelectric elements connected to simple control circuits, known as shunts, is
a widely studied field. Many different shunts have been researched that haven been shown to obtain strong performance
in both narrow and broadband frequency ranges. Yet, the choice for the exact parameters of these shunts can be found
different ways. In this work, a new method of selecting the components of a negative capacitance shunt is presented. An
impedance model of a piezoelectric patch is developed and used to predict the control of a vibrating structure. The model
predicts the magnitude of the strain induced voltage caused by the vibrating substrate through the computation of two
voltage readings within the shunt. It is then confirmed experimentally, that it is possible to obtain experimentally the
shunt parameters that produce maximum control through measurement of the shunt response.
Shunted piezoelectric patches form an effective control mechanism for reducing vibrations of a mechanical
system. One type of shunt, a negative capacitance circuit, is capable of suppressing vibration amplitude over
a broad frequency range. Most previous work has focused on control of simple test structures such as beams
and plates. This work studies the performance of the negative capacitance shunt connected to piezoelectric
patches attached to a stiffened aircraft panel. The placement of the piezoelectric transducers is determined
using a simplified finite element model of one bay of the panel. The numerical predictions are compared to
experimental results for spatial average vibration for a point force input. The amount of control for increasing
number of patches is also investigated. These results give a more accurate representation of the achievable
performance in real world application.
The use of piezoelectric patches for actuation as a vibration control method has been widely investigated. Some of the
uses for piezoelectric actuators include velocity feedback, synthetic impedance control, and a shunted sensor-actuator.
Likewise, periodic structures have been shown to be effective in allowing the dissipation of travelling wave energy. The
combination of these control procedures, an active periodic piezoelectric array, allows for enhanced vibration control.
Presented here is the investigation of thin beam with 12 piezoelectric patch pairs. These patches will be shunted with
varying selected impedances, specifically negative capacitive impedances, to allow for comparison of control ability. This comparison includes an analysis of spatial RMS velocity and numerical propagation constant.
KEYWORDS: Protactinium, Transducers, Microsoft Foundation Class Library, Actuators, Solids, Composites, Fourier transforms, Wave plates, Interfaces, Chemical elements
The paper describes a numerical approach for the analysis of Lamb wave generation in plate structures. Focus
is placed on the investigation of macro fiber composite (MFC) actuators and their directivity properties when
actuated individually. A local Finite Element model of the electro-mechanical behavior of the actuator/substrate
system estimates the distribution of the interface stresses between the actuator and the substrate, which are
subsequently provided as inputs to the analytical procedure that estimates the far-field response of the plate.
The proposed approach allows handling of complex actuation configurations, as well as the presence of a bonding layer. As an example, the technique is applied to estimate the directional Lamb wave generation of two types of macro fiber composite transducers. The numerical results are validated experimentally by using a Polytec PSV400 MS scanning laser doppler vibrometer. The results suggest the potentials of the approach as a tool for the prediction of the excitation provided by actuators of complex shapes.
Periodic arrays of hybrid shunted piezoelectric actuators are used to suppress vibrations in an aluminum plate.
Commonly, piezoelectric shunted networks are used for individual mode control, through tuned, resonant RLC
circuits, and for broad-band vibration attenuation, through negative impedance converters (NIC). Periodically
placed resonant shunts allow broadband reduction resulting from the attenuation of propagating waves in frequency
bands which are defined by the spatial periodicity of the array and by the shunting parameters considered
on the circuit. Such attenuation typically occurs at high frequencies, while NICs are effective in reducing the
vibration amplitudes of the first modes of the structure. The combination of an array resonant shunts and NICs
on a two-dimensional (2D) panel allows combining the advantages of the two concepts, which provide broadband
attenuation in the high frequency regimes and the reduction of the amplitudes of the low frequency modes.
Numerical results are presented to illustrate the proposed approach, and frequency response measurements on a
cantilever aluminum plate demonstrate that an attenuation region of about 1000Hz is achieved with a maximum
8 dB vibration reduction.
Numerical and technological tools have been developed for complete electromechanical integration of innovative
shunting damping strategies for piezoelectric composite beam stabilization to realize a new type of hybrid piezo-composite
smart structure. The approach enhances the performance of fully passive configurations to control
mechanical power flow in a beam by using negative capacitance elements. In contrast to passive shunted components
that target discrete modes, negative capacitance shunted piezoelectric transducers offer the potential for
broadband control from the low Hertz into the kilohertz range.
This paper presents an original approach to tune vibration power flow dispersion in a piezocomposite beam to
obtain total wave absorption by only optimizing the electrical circuit configuration shunting a single piezopatch.
The numerical study considers the power flow efficiency of the strategy and the stability and robustness difficulties
observed when a single device is considered.
The simplicity of the proposed electromechanical controlling device affords the possibility to define and realize
distributed configurations and also lends itself to integrated distributed smart composite structures.
Negative impedance shunts have been used with piezoelectric materials for the purposes of vibration
suppression. Details of the shunt design may be determined using different performance objectives such as
maximum dissipation or minimization of reactive input power. Experimentally optimized shunts are applied
to a composite piezoelectric aluminum beam subjected to a broadband disturbance. Performance measures of
interest include an overall power balance for the system, as well as tip vibration suppression and spatial
average vibration suppression. The resulting measures are compared to the wave-tuning and reactive power
input tuning suppression theories.
Piezoelectric patches shunted with a negative capacitance circuit represent an effective broadband active control
methodology. Recent developments have shown that a wave-based tuning of such shunts applied to beams yields varying
levels of control depending upon the configuration, with the most effective configuration being that of a shunt at the root
of the beam. That configuration yielded effectively an anechoic termination. The effectiveness of the different
configurations may be interpreted through their ability to couple to and suppress the reactive input power delivered by a
point excitation, as is demonstrated in this paper. The reactive input power suppression concept is extended to the case of
vibration suppression on a rectangular panel, and is shown to predict significant vibration suppression capability.
A state-switched absorber (SSA) is a device that is capable of switching between discrete stiffnesses, thus it is able to instantaneously switch between resonance frequencies. The state-switched absorber is essentially a passive vibration absorber between switch events; however, at each switch event the SSA instantly 'retunes' its natural frequency and maintains that frequency until the next switch event. The SSA has shown improved performance over classical tuned vibration absorbers at reducing the vibration in a base system. This paper considers the optimization of the state-switched absorber applied to a continuous vibrating system. The objective function to be minimized in the state-switching system is the average kinetic energy of the base to which the absorber is attached. Due to the discrete nature of the switch events of the SSA, this objective function is discontinuous as a function of tuning parameters, such as frequency and attachment location. Because of the discontinuities in the objective function, classical gradient-based optimization techniques cannot be employed. To avoid the problem of discontinuities in the objective function, a heuristic approach will be utilized to optimize the state-switched absorber. The optimized performance of the state-switched absorber will be compared to that of an optimized classical tuned vibration absorber. For the entire range of forcing frequencies considered, an SSA has improved performance over a TVA.
Unconstrained magnetorheological-elastomers (MRE) experience a stiffness increase and elastomeric deformation in response to an applied magnetic field. An MRE consists of ferromagnetic particles dispersed in a host elastomer matrix. This study considers whether the stiffness change of MRE springs is due to magnetic particle-to-particle interactions or to elastomer deformation. If the stiffening is attributable to magnetic particle interaction, then it should occur even in the absence of the elastomer. To test this hypothesis, a smart fabric consisting of low-carbon steel thread in one direction and nonmagnetic thread in the other was created. Two extension springs were placed in parallel with this smart fabric, and placed in between two iron masses. An electromagnet coil wound about one of the masses provided the source of magnetic field across the smart fabric. The frequency response of the device was measured when the coil was driven by a DC current, at 0.5 Amp increments, from 0 to 4. The device exhibited a 33% increase in stiffness at 4 Amps compared to the stiffness at 0 Amps. While this shift is not as large as shifts observed in MREs, the design was not optimized for iron content, and only had a 0.6% iron content.
This paper considers the optimization of the performance of a state-switched absorber (SSA) in controlling the vibration of a continuous beam. A state-switched absorber has the capability to instantaneously change its stiffness, which allows the absorber to 'retune' to a new natural frequency instantaneously. Between each 'retuning', or switch event, the SSA is essentially a passive device, tuned to the resonance frequency of its current state. With proper switching logic, the SSA shows improved performance in vibration control as compared to classical passive devices when the excitation contains more than one frequency component. The SSA considered here is capable of switching between only two discrete stiffnesses. A direct search algorithm is employed for optimization of the absorber's location along the beam as well as the two tuning frequencies needed to achieve the best performance of the state-switched absorber. Several two-frequency component point excitations are considered at a few locations along the beam and over a range of frequencies. The optimized performance of the state-switched absorber is compared to the optimized performance of a classical tuned vibration absorber (TVA) for each forcing case.
A tuned vibration absorber (TVA) is a spring-damper-mass system used in many industries for the suppression of a specific vibration frequency. A state-switched absorber (SSA) is similar to a TVA, except that one or more components in the SSA is able to instantaneously and discretely change properties, thus increasing the effective bandwidth of vibration suppression. The components responsible for bandwidth increase are called switching elements. In order to design a replacement SSA for the classic TVA, the SSA must operate in the appropriate frequency range, be lightweight and compact. An optimal SSA will also have a maximal frequency range that it can switch between. This paper discusses the development of a magnetorheological (MR) silicone gel used as the SSA switching element, the SSA geometry selected to maintain a magnetic flux path, and the contribution of the magnet-mass to frequency shifting. The MR gel is iron-doped silicone, cured in the presence of a magnetic field. During operation, the applied magnetic flux is modified to change the natural frequency. Since a flux path through the switching element is required, a steel flux path was incorporated as part of the SSA design. The SSA is desgined to operate below 100 Hz. An MR elastometer with 35% iron by volume yielded the most tunable results, where the minimum natural frequency was found to be 45 Hz, and the natural frequency was tunable up to 183 Hz.
A state-switched device is conceptually capable of instantaneously changing its mass, stiffness, or damping. Such a device will exhibit different dynamical response properties (modes and resonance frequencies) depending on its current state. A state-switched vibration absorber exploits the state-switching concept for the purposes of enhanced vibration suppression. Between each state switch, it is fundamentally a passive vibration absorber, but one which exhibits a different tuning frequency for each possible state. A state-switched vibration absorber therefore has a greater effective bandwidth than a classical passive absorber. This paper considers the role of damping in the state-switching concept for a simple one-degree of freedom system and for a two-degree of freedom system. Certain values of damping in the system improve performance, while other values hinder the performance of the state-switched absorber, as compared to classical absorbers. The predicted performance of the system also depends upon the particular damping model used, such as proportional, viscous, or modal damping. Damping values also affect the frequency of switch events that occur during the response of the system. In general, a state-switched absorber with optimized damping is more effective at vibration suppression as compared to a classical vibration absorber with optimized damping.
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