Three-dimensional localization of protein conformation changes in turbid media using Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) was investigated by tomographic fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM). FRET occurs when a donor fluorophore, initially in its electronic excited state, transfers energy to an acceptor fluorophore in close proximity through non-radiative dipole-dipole coupling. An acceptor effectively behaves as a quencher of the donor's fluorescence. The quenching process is accompanied by a reduction in the quantum yield and lifetime of the donor fluorophore. Therefore, FRET can be localized by imaging changes in the quantum yield and the fluorescence lifetime of the donor fluorophore. Extending FRET to diffuse optical tomography has potentially important applications such as in vivo studies in small animal. We show that FRET can be localized by reconstructing the quantum yield and lifetime distribution from time-resolved non-invasive boundary measurements of fluorescence and transmitted excitation radiation. Image reconstruction was obtained by an inverse scattering algorithm. Thus we report, to the best of our knowledge, the first tomographic FLIM-FRET imaging in turbid media. The approach is demonstrated by imaging a highly scattering cylindrical phantom concealing two thin wells containing cytosol preparations of HEK293 cells expressing TN-L15, a cytosolic genetically-encoded calcium FRET sensor. A 10mM calcium chloride solution was added to one of the wells to induce a protein conformation change upon binding to TN-L15, resulting in FRET and a corresponding decrease in the donor fluorescence lifetime. The resulting fluorescence lifetime distribution, the quantum efficiency, absorption and scattering coefficients were reconstructed.
Optical Projection Tomography (OPT) is a wide-field technique for measuring the threedimensional
distribution of absorbing/fluorescing species in non-scattering (optically cleared)
samples up to ~1cm in size, and as such is the optical analogue of X-ray computed tomography.
We have extended the intensity-based OPT technique to measure the three-dimensional
fluorescence lifetime distribution (tomoFLIM) in transparent samples. Due to its inherent
ratiometric nature, fluorescence lifetime measurements are robust against intensity-based
artifacts as well as producing a quantitative measure of the fluorescence signal, making it
particularly suited to Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) measurements.
We implement tomoFLIM via OPT by acquiring a series of wide-field time-gated images
at different relative time delays with respect to a train of excitation pulses for a range of
projection angles. For each time delay, the three-dimensional time-gated intensity distribution is
reconstructed using a filtered back projection algorithm and the fluorescence lifetime is
subsequently determined for each reconstructed horizontal plane by iterative fitting of an
appropriate decay model.
We present a tomographic reconstruction of a fluorescence lifetime resolved FRET
calcium contruct, TN-L15 cytosol suspension, in a silicone phantom. This genetically encoded sensor, TN-L15, comprises the calcium-binding domain of Troponin C, flanked by the
fluorophores cyan fluorescent protein and citrine. In the presence of calcium ions TN-L15
changes conformation bringing the two fluorophores into close proximity, resulting in FRET. We
also present autofluorescence and fluorescently labelled tomoFLIM reconstructions of chick
embryos, including a genetically encoded fluorophore TagRFP-T. The fluorophore was
electroporated in ovo into the neural tube of the embryos, which were subsequently dissected two
days post-electroporation, fixed in ethanol and optically cleared for OPT/tomoFLIM acquisition.
The reconstructed 3-D fluorescence lifetime image provides contrast between the genetically
labelled TagRFP-T and the emitted autofluorescence.
We report a novel technique to reconstruct fluorescence lifetime distributions in turbid media by using Fourier domain
reconstruction of time gated imaging data. The time gating provides sufficient temporal resolution to determine short
fluorescence lifetimes while the use of the Fourier transform, which is essential for the time de-convolution of the system
of the integral equations employed in the reconstruction, permits a relatively rapid reconstruction of 3-D tomographic
data. This approach has been applied experimentally to reconstruct fluorescent lifetime distributions corresponding to
phantoms with wells filled with fluorescent dyes embedded inside highly scattering slabs. In practice, the scattering
medium can itself be fluorescent and we also suggest a simple iterative technique to account for background autofluorescence, which we have also tested experimentally.
In this paper we discuss the application of higher-order transport approximations using finite element-spherical harmonics methods (FE-PN) to multidimensional photon propagation problems. The combined methodology offers fast and accurate modeling of photon propagation in multidimensional diffusive and non-diffusive media. This is of great importance to the practical solution of the inverse scattering problems which characterize optical tomography.
The design of electron optical systems involves the calculation of electromagnetic fields to high accuracy. The first-order finite element method has been extensively used in electron optical design. In the design of magnetic lenses, for instance, discrepancies have been found between computed and measured fields. This discrepancy becomes larger as the saturation level is increased. Rapid variations of permeability with distance causes problems when using a first-order finite element method. These problems are overcome by the application of a second-order finite element method. The method also allows the easier modelling of curved electrodes.
The major design goals of photomultiplier tubes are: to maximize the collection between individual stages, thereby optimizing the tube sensitivity; and to minimize the transit time spread of electrons between individual emission and collection surfaces, thereby optimizing the time resolution. The numerical modelling involves computing the electrostatic fields and electron trajectories for various electrode structures. A fully three dimensional (3D) program is used to give a better representation of the tube's design, and also allows the freedom of using accelerating electrodes and focusing rings of different shapes and heights, which can be modelled accurately in 3D.
The finite difference method (FDM) is used to compute electrostatic potential distributions in photomultipliers. New Fortran packages, using both successive over-relaxation (SOR) and incomplete Choleski conjugate gradient (ICCG) techniques, have been developed for solving the finite difference equations. The effects of the mesh size on the accuracy of the results and the difference between the two methods are highlighted. The electron trajectories are computed by direct ray tracing with a power series method. The software can handle electron transparent grids as well as dynodes. It has been used to characterize the performance of many photomultiplier tubes. The results agree very well with experimental measurements. In addition, the advantages of using three-dimensional field computation in the design of certain PM tubes are illustrated.
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