KEYWORDS: Silicon, Indium gallium phosphide, Monte Carlo methods, Solar cells, Solar energy, Resistance, Renewable energy, Tandem solar cells, Photovoltaics, Energy efficiency
Mechanically stacked tandem solar cells are a potential near-term solution for increasing the efficiency of photovoltaic modules. Practical implementation requires an interconnection approach that maximizes efficiency and minimizes complexity and cost. Connecting the top and bottom cells in a voltage-matched configuration allows two-terminal modules to be fabricated without altering the cell design or processing methods. Here, we experimentally demonstrate two-terminal voltage-matched GaInP2 / Si minimodules. The two-terminal minimodules performed just as well as four terminal configurations when voltage-matching requirements were met. The magnitude of the efficiency loss experienced by the voltage-matched minimodule when voltage-matched conditions were not met depends on whether the voltage was constrained by the GaInP2 or Si cells. Monte Carlo simulations also indicate that the two-terminal voltage-matched tandems respond to small cell-to-cell parameter variations in a similar manner as four terminal tandems.
Hot carrier solar cells (HCSCs) have been proposed as potential systems to increase the conversion efficiency of single gap solar cells beyond the Shockley-Queisser limit. Despite a great deal of recent progress in HCSCs, designing an effective and efficient hot carrier absorber remains challenging. To evaluate the efficiency of any proposed absorber accurate determination of the carrier temperature is required. This can be non-trivial, particularly in the quantum wells (QW) where state-filling effects can complicate the simple extraction of carrier temperature from photoluminescence (PL) spectra. Specifically, the PL may be distorted if there are other linewidth broadening mechanisms prevalent in addition to non-equilibrium carriers. These may include; in addition to state filling, the effects of phonons and system inhomogeneities, all of which serve to perturb the PL linewidth. In this study, an InGaAsP QW with a type-II band alignment is investigated using continuous wave power and temperature dependent PL to evaluate the effects of broadening on the extraction of the true carrier temperature in the system [1]. Since there is a relatively small energy separation between the ground and first excited state transitions in the QW studied, state filling effects can be controlled and their contribution to the linewidth evaluated, using various conditions and combinations of excitation power and lattice temperature. The role of phonons is also presented, and supported within the framework of a theoretical model that includes the various phononic processes and their temperature dependent contribution to the PL.
This work is supported by the National Science Foundation Grant ECCS #1610062
[1] Esmaielpour, Hamidreza, Vincent R. Whiteside, Louise C. Hirst, Joseph G. Tischler, Chase T. Ellis, Matthew P. Lumb, David V. Forbes, Robert J. Walters, and Ian R. Sellers. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications (2017).
KEYWORDS: Silicon, Indium gallium phosphide, Photovoltaics, Solar cells, Crystals, Temperature metrology, Tandem solar cells, Solar energy, Systems modeling, Electronics
This work examines a tandem module design with GaInP2 mechanically stacked on top of crystalline Si, using a detailed photovoltaic (PV) system model to simulate four-terminal (4T) unconstrained and two-terminal voltage-matched (2T VM) parallel architectures. Module-level power electronics is proposed for the 2T VM module design to enhance its performance over the breadth of temperatures experienced by a typical PV installation. Annual, hourly simulations of various scenarios indicate that this design can reduce annual energy losses to ∼0.5% relative to the 4T module configuration. Consideration is given to both performance and practical design for building or ground mount installations, emphasizing compatibility with existing standard Si modules.
A tunnel junction has been developed with an application to multijunction solar cells grown on GaSb and analyzed using a combination of electrical device measurements and modeling. The device employs an InAs quantum well embedded in a GaSb p/n junction, exploiting the high tunnel probability at the broken-gap interface between p-type GaSb and n-type InAs and having a minimal impact on the transparency of the device. The concept is extended to wider bandgap heterointerfaces using Al0.2Ga0.8Sb, achieving a differential resistance of 4.08×10−4 Ω cm2.
The hot carrier solar cell (HCSC) offers one route to high efficiency solar energy conversion and has similar
fundamental limiting efficiency to multi-junction (MJ) solar cells however, the HCSC is at a much earlier stage
of development. We discuss the unique features of the HCSC which distinguish it from other PV technologies,
providing motivation for development.
We consider the potential for a low concentration hot-carrier enhanced single-junction solar cell, enabled
by field enhancing cell architectures. To support this we experimentally show that changing sample geometry
to increase carrier density, while keeping phononic and electronic properties constant, substantially reduces
hot-carrier themalization coefficient. Such a scheme might have similar applications to todays high efficiency
single-junction devices while allowing from some intrinsic efficiency enhancement.
We also use spectral data simulated using SMARTS to identify HCSC spectral insensitivity relative to MJ
devices. Spectral insensitivity increases annual energy yield relative to laboratory test efficiency, reducing the
cost of PV power generation. There are also several practical advantages: a single device design will operate
optimally in a variety of locations and solar power stations are less reliant of accurate, long-range atmospheric
simulation to achieve energy yield targets.
The high conversion efficiencies demonstrated by multi-junction solar cells over the past three decades have made them indispensable for use in space and are very attractive for terrestrial concentrator applications. The multi-junction technology consistently displays efficiency values in excess of 30%, with record highs of 37.8% under 1 sun conditions and over 44% under concentration. However, as material quality in current III-V multi-junction technology reaches practical limits, more sophisticated structures will be required to further improve on these efficiency values. In a collaborative effort amongst several institutions we have developed a novel multi-junction solar cell design that has the potential to reach the 50% conversion efficiency value. Our design consists of a three junction cell grown on InP substrates which achieves the optimal bandgaps for solar energy conversion using lattice matched materials. In this work, we present the progress in the different subcells comprising this multi-junction structure. For the top cell, InAlAsSb quaternary material is studied. For the middle, InGaAlAs and InGaAsP materials and devices are considered and for the bottom, a multi-quantum well structure lattice matched to InP for fine bandgap tunability for placement in an InGaAs cell is demonstrated.
Experimental results on triple-junction solar cells irradiated by 3 MeV proton irradiation to very high damage levels are presented. The minority carrier transport properties were obtained through quantum efficiency and EBIC measurements and an analytical drift-diffusion solver was used in understanding the results for different degradation levels where multiple damage mechanisms are evident.
Christopher Bailey, Matthew Lumb, Raymond Hoheisel, Maria Gonzalez, David Forbes, Michael Yakes, Seth Hubbard, Louise Hirst, Justin Lorentzen, Joseph Tischler, Ken Schmieder, Cory Cress, Phillip Jenkins, Robert Walters
InGaAs quantum well / InAlGaAs barrier solar cells were grown and tested in order to evaluate their solar cell performance. These samples were grown with five layers of QWs at varying depths in the intrinsic region of the n-i-p devices. An external quantum efficiency measurement was used to determine the sub-bandgap spectral responsivity, and showed efficient absorption and collection beyond the bulk material bandedge, from 1280 to 1580 nm. Simulations were performed to evaluate electric field strength as a function of depth and a resonant excitation short-circuit current density measurement was then used to characterize the samples with varied quantum well depths. The electric field acting on carriers, photoexcited into the quantum wells, impacts on the probability of those carriers contributing to the measured short-circuit current. We observe the simulated dependence of carrier collection on electric field in these devices, with a 29% increase in relative carrier collection efficiency between the sample experiencing the highest versus the lowest electric field.
A highly effective strategy of photon management is to use a back surface reflector. In this work, we present a full analytical model incorporating effects from both the modified generation function and photon recycling in GaAs solar cells with a BSR. We discuss the impact of doping concentration, non-radiative recombination, solar cell dimensions and BSR reflectivity on the efficiency, and compare the prediction of the device models to experimental data measured on GaAs devices. We use the model to predict the performance of alternative III-V materials, such as InP, comparing the predicted performance to state-of-the-art GaAs solar cells.
Antonio Marti Vega, Elisa Antolin, Pablo Linares, Iñigo Ramiro, Irene Artacho, Esther López, Estela Hernández, Alexander Mellor, Ignacio Tobías, David Marron, César Tablero, Ana Cristóbal, Christopher Bailey, Maria Gonzalez, Michael Yakes, Matthew Lumb, Robert Walters, Antonio Luque, Manuel Mendes
The concept of intermediate band solar cell (IBSC) is, apparently, simple to grasp. However, since the idea was proposed, our understanding has improved and some concepts can now be explained more clearly than when the concept was initially introduced. Clarifying these concepts is important, even if they are well known for the advanced researcher, so that research efforts can be driven in the right direction from the start. The six pieces of this work are: Does a miniband need to be formed when the IBSC is implemented with quantum dots? What are the problems for each of the main practical approaches that exist today? What are the simplest experimental techniques to demonstrate whether an IBSC is working as such or not? What is the issue with the absorption coefficient overlap and the Mott’s transition? What would the best system be, if any?
A. Martí, E. Antolín, P. García-Linares, I. Ramiro, I. Artacho, E. López, E. Hernández, M. Mendes, A. Mellor, I. Tobías, D. Fuertes Marrón, C. Tablero, A. Cristóbal, C. Bailey, M. Gonzalez, M. Yakes, M. Lumb, R. Walters, A. Luque
The concept of "intermediate band solar cell" (IBSC) is, apparently, simple to grasp. However, since the idea was proposed, our understanding has improved and we feel now that we can explain better some concepts than we initially introduced. Clarifying these concepts is important, even if they are well-known for the advanced researcher, so that efforts can be driven in the right direction from start. The six pieces of this work are: Does a miniband need to be formed when the IBSC is implemented with quantum dots?; What are the problems of each of the main practical approaches that exist today? What are the simplest experimental techniques to demonstrate whether an IBSC is working as such or not? What is the issue with the absorption coefficient overlap? and Mott's transition? What the best system would be, if any?
KEYWORDS: Solar cells, Satellites, Space operations, Gallium arsenide, Photovoltaics, Solar concentrators, Silicon, Particles, Data modeling, Analytical research
Since the early beginnings of the space age in the 1950s, solar cells have been considered as the primary choice for long term electrical power generation of satellites and space systems. This is mainly due to their high power/mass ratio and the good scalability of solar modules according to the power requirements of a space mission. During the last decades, detailed solar cell material studies including the non-trivial interaction with high-energy space particles have led to continuous and significant improvements in device efficiency. This allowed the powering of advanced space systems like the International Space Station, rovers on the Martian surface as well as satellites which have helped to understand the universe and our planet. It is noteworthy that in addition to their success in space, these photovoltaic technologies have also broken ground for the application of photovoltaic systems in terrestrial systems. This paper discusses the development of space solar cells, gives insight into related experiments like the analysis of the interaction with space particles and provides an overview on challenges and requirements for future space missions.
In this work, we use an analytical drift-diffusion model, coupled with detailed carrier transport and minority carrier lifetime estimates, to make realistic predictions of the conversion efficiency of InP-based triple junction cells. We evaluate the possible strategies for overcoming the problematic top cell for the triple junction, and make comparisons of the more realistic charge transport model with incumbent technologies grown on Ge or GaAs substrates.
Semiconductor quantum wells and superlattices have found numerous applications in optoelectronic devices, such as lasers, LEDs and SOAs, and are an increasingly common feature of high efficiency solar cells and photodetectors. In this paper we will highlight some of the recent developments in the use of low-dimensional III-V semiconductors to improve the performance of photovoltaics by tailoring the bandgap of the junction. We also discuss novel structures designed to maximize photo-generated carrier escape and the application of quantum confinement to other components of the solar cell, such as tunnel junctions. Recent developments in type-II superlattices for photodetectors will also be discussed, including the graded-gap LWIR device based on the W-structured superlattices demonstrated at the Naval Research Laboratory.
Modeled results will be presented using the NRL BANDSTM integrated 8-band kp and Poisson solver, which was
developed for computing the bandstructures of superlattice and multi-quantum well photodiodes
KEYWORDS: Electroluminescence, Solar cells, Germanium, External quantum efficiency, Indium gallium phosphide, Gallium arsenide, Solar radiation, Particles, Solar energy, Analytical research
The voltage degradation of GaInP/GaAs/Ge triple-junction solar cells after exposure to proton irradiation is
analyzed using electroluminescence (EL) measurements. It is shown that EL measurements in combination with the
reciprocity relationship allow accurate determination of the degradation of the open-circuit voltage (Voc) of each
individual subcell. The impact of different proton energies on the voltage degradation of each subcell is analyzed.
For solar cells exposed to extremely high radiation levels, a correlation between the degradation of the quantum
efficiency of the Ge subcell and its EL properties is presented.
This work uses simulations to predict the performance of InAlAsSb solar cells for use as the top cell of triple
junction cells lattice matched to InP. The InP-based material system has the potential to achieve extremely high
efficiencies due the availability of lattice matched materials close to the ideal bandgaps for solar energy conversion.
The band-parameters, optical properties and minority carrier transport properties are modeled based on literature
data for the InAlAsSb quaternary, and an analytical drift-diffusion model is used to realistically predict the solar cell
performance.
KEYWORDS: Solar cells, Gallium arsenide, Multijunction solar cells, Solar energy, Indium gallium phosphide, Energy efficiency, Quantum wells, Coastal modeling, Performance modeling, Sun
The modeling of high efficiency, multijunction (MJ) solar cells away from the radiative limit is presented. In the model,
we quantify the effect of non-radiative recombination by using radiative efficiency as a figure of merit to extract realistic
values of performance under different spectral conditions. This approach represents a deviation from the traditional
detailed balance approximation, where losses in the device are assumed to occur purely through radiative recombination.
For lattice matched multijunction solar cells, the model predicts efficiency values of 37.1% for AM0 conditions and
52.8% under AM1.5D at 1 sun and 500X, respectively. In addition to the theoretical study, we present an experimental
approach to achieving these high efficiencies by implementing a lattice matched triple junction (TJ) solar cell grown on
InP substrates. The projected efficiencies of this approach are compared to results for the state of the art inverted-metamorphic
(IMM) technology. We account for the effect of metamorphic junctions, essential in IMM technology, by
employing reduced radiative efficiencies as derived from recent data. We show that high efficiencies, comparable to
current GaAs-based MJ technology, can be accomplished without any relaxed layers for growth on InP, and derive the
optimum energy gaps, material alloys, and quantum-well structures necessary to realize them.
KEYWORDS: Solar cells, Diffusion, Quantum efficiency, Silicon, Particles, Solar radiation, Solar energy, Gallium arsenide, Photovoltaics, Data modeling
The radiation response mechanisms operative in space solar cells are described. The effects of electron and proton
radiation-induced defects on the cell performance are identified and methods for modeling the radiation response are
presented. The space radiation environment is described, and a methodology for modeling the response of a solace cell
to exposure to the space radiation environment is presented. It is shown how this model an be used to predict on orbit
performance, and examples from space experiments are shown.
The development of a photovoltaically (PV) powered laser communication system that constitutes a miniature, highly energy-efficient wireless communication technology is described. The technology is based on the direct integration of a multiquantum well (MQW) modulating retroreflector (MRR) optical communication node and a monolithically integrated module (MIM) PV power source. The MQW MRR optical data link exploits the shift in the MQW absorption peak under an applied reverse bias to modulate incident laser light, enabling binary encoding of data for transfer. A MIM consists of many individual solar cells monolithically integrated on a single substrate and offers the design versatility necessary to enable efficient electrical conversion of both incident sunlight and the system laser light and the ability to match the voltage output to the MRR requirements. A description of the development of the MRR and MIM components of the system is given. Results of bench-top demonstrations of the operational system are presented.
The photovoltaic characterization of triple-junction InGaP2/GaAs/Ge solar cells is presented. Measurements made using a single light source solar simulator are compared with other measurements made using a multi-light source solar simulator that provides a close match to the air mass zero (AM0) solar spectrum. The output spectrum of the solar simulators has been measured, and two methods for calibrating the simulator output intensity haven been employed. The spectral response of the solar cells has been characterized through quantum efficiency measurements. These data are analyzed to determine the effect of the simulator spectrum on the measured photovoltaic response, and in particular, areas where spectral mismatch between the simulator and AM0 can lead to inaccurate performance predictions are highlighted. In addition, the effects of the different calibration techniques on the measured data are studied. Exploiting the capabilities of the multi-source, close matched simulator, the response of each of the three sub-junctions are studied individually, and the interplay between the spectral response of the sub-junctions and the incident spectrum is investigated.
The development of a photovoltaically (PV) powered, laser communication system that constitutes a miniature, highly energy-efficient wireless communication technology is described. The technology is based on the direct integration of a multi-quantum well (MQW) modulating retroreflector (MRR) optical communication node and a monolithically integrated module (MIM) PV power source. The MQW MRR optical data link exploits the shift in the MQW absorption peak under an applied reverse bias to modulate incident laser light enabling binary encoding of data for transfer. A MIM consists of many individual solar cells monolithically integrated on a single substrate and offers the design versatility necessary to allow efficient electrical conversion of both incident sunlight and the system laser-light and the ability to match the voltage output to the MRR requirements. A description of the development of the MRR and MIM components of the system along with the power management and distribution circuitry is given. Results of bench-top demonstrations of the operational system are presented.
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