Recently, an increasing interest in utilizing 2D gratings on the waveguide for exit pupil expander (EPE) designs has been observed. However, to the best of author’s knowledge, most of these designs use only hexagonally arranged lattice for the 2D grating and do not investigate how varying lattice vector angle can help the optimization. In this paper, we will first discuss the consideration of non-orthogonal lattice vectors in Rigorous Coupled Wave Analysis (RCWA), provided by Ansys Lumerical RCWA. We will explain how a hexagonal 2D grating can be simulated with a set of orthogonal lattice vectors and why the same trick does not work for non-hexagonal 2D grating with arbitrary lattice vector angle. We will explain what it means when the grating is non-hexagonal in k-space and real space, and the consequent benefits. Based on the concept, initial simulation results, using dynamic link between Ansys Lumerical RCWA and Ansys Zemax OpticStudio, will be demonstrated. The simulation with different lattice vector angle are performed for understanding the system behavior. Finally, we set up an optimization workflow in Ansys optiSlang, considering lattice vector angles as one of variables. The optimization results will be discussed.
Compressive sensing is a recent technique that was developed for the reconstruction of large signals from a small number of measurements. It relies on the assumption that the signal to recover is sparse, and the performance of the reconstruction is depending on the level of sparsity. However, in practical case the sparsity of the image to recover is unknown and it is then difficult to estimate the number of measurements necessary to reconstruct the image with a satisfying quality. In this study, we examined a strategy where the image is reconstructed by CS in two steps. A first step with a small number of measurements to estimate the number of points needed, and a second step for the final reconstruction. In addition, we investigated the benefits to create a partition of the image of interest to estimate locally the number of measurements needed for the reconstruction. We demonstrated that our strategy could be used to reconstruct images presenting a PSNR similar to the one obtained with the conventional method, but with fewer measurements.
One problem common to imaging techniques based on coherent light is speckle noise. This phenomenon is caused mostly by random interference of light scattered by rough surfaces. Speckle noise can be avoided by using advanced holographic imaging techniques such as optical scanning holography. A more widely known method is to capture several holograms of the same object and to perform an averaging operation so that the signal to noise ratio can be improved. Several digital filters were also proposed to reduce noise in the numerical reconstruction plane of holograms, even though they usually require finding a compromise between noise reduction and edge preservation. In this study, we used a digital filter based on compressive sensing algorithm. This approach enables to obtain results equivalent to the average of multiple holograms, but only a single hologram is needed.
Filters for speckle reduction are applied on numerical reconstructions of hologram, and not on the hologram itself. Then, optical reconstruction cannot be performed. We propose a method based on direct-binary search (DBS) algorithm to generate binary holograms that can be reconstructed optically after application of a speckle reduction filter. Since the optimization procedure of the DBS algorithm is performed in the image plane, speckle reduction techniques can be applied on the complex hologram and used as a reference to obtain a binary pattern where the speckle noise generated during the recording of the hologram has been filtered.
KEYWORDS: Holograms, Clouds, Holographic interferometry, Sensors, Digital holography, Data acquisition, Data modeling, 3D modeling, Wave propagation, Computer generated holography, Holography, RGB color model
Data of real scenes acquired in real-time with a Kinect sensor can be processed with different approaches to generate a hologram. 3D models can be generated from a point cloud or a mesh representation. The advantage of the point cloud approach is that computation process is well established since it involves only diffraction and propagation of point sources between parallel planes. On the other hand, the mesh representation enables to reduce the number of elements necessary to represent the object. Then, even though the computation time for the contribution of a single element increases compared to a simple point, the total computation time can be reduced significantly. However, the algorithm is more complex since propagation of elemental polygons between non-parallel planes should be implemented. Finally, since a depth map of the scene is acquired at the same time than the intensity image, a depth layer approach can also be adopted. This technique is appropriate for a fast computation since propagation of an optical wavefront from one plane to another can be handled efficiently with the fast Fourier transform. Fast computation with depth layer approach is convenient for real time applications, but point cloud method is more appropriate when high resolution is needed. In this study, since Kinect can be used to obtain both point cloud and depth map, we examine the different approaches that can be adopted for hologram computation and compare their performance.
The Kinect sensor is a device that enables to capture a real scene with a camera and a depth sensor. A virtual model of the scene can then be obtained with a point cloud representation. A complex hologram can then be computed. However, complex data cannot be used directly because display devices cannot handle amplitude and phase modulation at the same time. Binary holograms are commonly used since they present several advantages. Among the methods that were proposed to convert holograms into a binary format, the direct-binary search (DBS) not only gives the best performance, it also offers the possibility to choose the display parameters of the binary hologram differently than the original complex hologram. Since wavelength and reconstruction distance can be modified, compensation of chromatic aberrations can be handled. In this study, we examine the potential of DBS for RGB holographic display.
KEYWORDS: 3D displays, Eye, Monochromatic aberrations, 3D metrology, Infrared imaging, Infrared radiation, Measurement devices, Photorefraction, Human vision and color perception, Visualization, 3D image processing, Integral imaging, Infrared cameras, Retina
Although accommodation response plays an important role in the human vision system for perception of distance, some three-dimensional (3D) displays offer depth stimuli regardless of the accommodation response. The consequence is that most observers watching 3D displays have complained about visual fatigue. The measurement of the accommodation response is therefore necessary to develop human-friendly 3D displays. However, only few studies about accommodation measurement have been reported. Most of the investigations have been focused on the measurement and analysis of monocular accommodation responses only because the accommodation response works individually in each eye. Moreover, a main eye perceives dominantly the object distance. However, the binocular accommodation response should be examined because both eyes are used to watch the 3D display in natural conditions. The ophthalmic instrument that we developed enabled to measure changes in the accommodation response of the two eyes simultaneously. Two cameras acquired separately the infrared images reflected from each eyes after the reflected beams passed through a cylindrical lens. The changes in the accommodation response could then be estimated from the changes in the astigmatism ratio of the infrared images that were acquired in real time. In this paper, we compared the accommodation responses of main eye between the monocular and the binocular conditions. The two eyes were measured one by one, with only one eye opened, during measurement for monocular condition. Then the two eyes were examined simultaneously for binocular condition. The results showed similar tendencies for main eye accommodation response in both cases.
This work presents binary hologram generation from images of a real object acquired from a Kinect sensor. Since hologram calculation from a point-cloud or polygon model presents a heavy computational burden, we adopted a depth-layer approach to generate the holograms. This method enables us to obtain holographic data of large scenes quickly. Our investigations focus on the performance of different methods, iterative and noniterative, to convert complex holograms into binary format. Comparisons were performed to examine the reconstruction of the binary holograms at different depths. We also propose to modify the direct binary search algorithm to take into account several reference image planes. Then, deep scenes featuring multiple planes of interest can be reconstructed with better efficiency.
We present a method to characterize not only shape but also depth of defects in line and space mask patterns. Features in a mask are too fine for a conventional imaging system to resolve them and a coherent imaging system providing only the pattern diffracted by the mask is used. Then phase retrieval methods may be applied, but the accuracy is too low to determine the exact shape of the defect. Deterministic methods have been proposed to accurately characterize the defect, but this requires a reference pattern. We propose to use a phase retrieval algorithm to retrieve the general shape of the mask and then apply a deterministic approach to precisely characterize the defects detected.
Imaging techniques based on CCD sensors presenting very high number of pixels enable to record images with high resolution. However, the huge storage load and high bandwidth required to store and transmit digital holographic information are technical bottlenecks that should be overcome for the future of holographic display. Techniques to capture images with single pixel sensors have been greatly improved recently with the development of compressive sensing algorithm (CS). Since interference patterns may be considered sparse, the number of measurements required to recover the information with CS is lower than the number of pixels of the reconstructed image. In addition, this method does not need any scanning system. One other advantage of single pixel imaging is that the cost of recording system can be dramatically reduced since high-resolution cameras are expensive while compressive sensing exploits only one pixel. In this paper, we present an imaging system based on phase-shifting holography. First, simulations were performed to confirm that hologram could be reconstructed by compressive sensing even if the number of measurements was smaller than the number of pixels. Then, experimental set-up was realized. Several holograms with different phase shifts introduced by quarter and half wave plates in the reference beam were acquired. We demonstrated that our system enables the reconstruction of the object.
In holographic reconstruction, speckle noise is a serious factor that may degrade the image quality greatly. Several methods have been proposed, so far, to filter speckle from hologram reconstruction. The first approach is based on averaging several speckle patterns. The second solution is to apply a filter on the reconstructed image. In the first case, several holograms should be acquired, while compromise between speckle reduction and edge preservation is usually a challenge in the case of digital filtering. We propose a method to filter speckle noise based on compressive sensing (CS). CS is a method that has been demonstrated recently to reconstruct images with a sampling inferior to the Nyquist rate. By applying several times the CS algorithm on the hologram reconstruction with different initial downsampling, several versions of the same images can be reconstructed with slightly different speckle patterns. Then, speckle noise can be greatly decreased while preserving sharpness of the image. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method with simulations as well as with holograms acquired by phase-shifting method.
In digital holography, spatial light modulators (SLMs) devices are used to display the holographic patterns. However, modulation is imperfect because SLMs cannot modulate phase and amplitude at the same time. Then undesired terms such as twin image can be observed in the image plane. One solution to remove twin image contribution without physical spatial filter is to perform complex modulation. Phase and amplitude modulation can be performed sequentially with two different SLMs. Similarly, real and imaginary part of hologram can be displayed and combined in an additive configuration through a polarizing beam splitter. In both case, a major problem is the alignment of the two display devices since misalignment as small as one pixel may degrade significantly quality of the reconstruction. For our experiment, we used data computed numerically to obtain separately real and imaginary part of hologram. Then, we focused on additive configuration where two SLMs are displaying real and imaginary part of hologram respectively.
Reconstruction distance of hologram is fixed and distance between SLM and beam splitter should be the same for the two devices. In this paper, we study the effect of having different reconstruction distance for the real and imaginary hologram. We performed simulations and explained the result with the scalar diffraction theory. A method to compensate numerically the reconstruction distance is proposed for on-axis configuration. This method can also be applied to modify reconstruction distance of Fresnel hologram displayed with a single SLM and has potential application in RGB holographic reconstruction
In this paper, we present a method to characterize not only shape but also depth of defects in line and space mask patterns. Features in a mask are too fine for conventional imaging system to resolve them and coherent imaging system providing only the pattern diffracted by the mask are used. Then, phase retrieval methods may be applied, but the accuracy it too low to determine the exact shape of the defect. Deterministic methods have been proposed to characterize accurately the defect, but it requires a reference pattern. We propose to use successively phase retrieval algorithm to retrieve the general shape of the mask and then deterministic approach to characterize precisely the defects detected.
Crosstalk in the contact-type multiview 3-D images is not an effective parameter of defining the quality of 3-D images. This is because the viewing zone in the contact-type multiview 3-D displays allows viewing the images which are composed of an image piece from each view image in a predefined set of consecutive view images, except the part along the viewing zone cross section. However, this part cannot guarantee to view individual view images separately because the viewing region of each view image is contacted to its neighboring viewing regions through a point for each neighbor due to its diamond like shape. Furthermore, the size of each view region can be smaller than the viewers’ pupil sizes as the pixel size decreases and/or the number of view images increases as in super-multiview imaging. The crosstalk has no meaning.
One of the issues in holographic display is the presence of the zeroth order and the twin image, which degrade quality of reconstructed objects. A common solution is to use an off-axis configuration. However, the spatial separation of the three contributions imposes constraints on the resolution and the size of holograms that can be displayed. In addition, the spatial light modulators (SLM) available present limitations in term of resolution and fill factor. Recently, different methods have been proposed to display complex information and therefore get rid of the twin image. One approach is to use a grating to combine the real and imaginary parts of the holographic data. It requires only one SLM, but the resolution is low as the SLM is divided in two to display the two components of the data. The grating period that should be used also strongly depends on the wavelength and the hologram size. As a result, the tolerance of the system is very low. Another method is to combine two SLMs. In this study, we used a polarizing beam splitter and a wave-plate to exploit the polarization properties of the light and combine the wavefronts coming from two SLMs. One was used to display the hologram while the second compensated the background noise coming from the diffusion of the input light by the pixels and the intrinsic periodic structure of the SLM. A key point is to align precisely the two SLMs to optimize the noise reduction without losing the object's information.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.