The subject today known as holography emerged from research in three diverse locations and having distinct origins,
aims and methods: at a commercial electrical laboratory in Rugby, England, from the late 1940s until the mid 1950s; at
the Vavilov State Optical Institute in Leningrad from the late 1950s and again from the mid 1960s; and, from a
classified research laboratory operated by the University of Michigan beginning in the mid 1950s and accelerating from
the early 1960s. The scientists, engineers, artisans, entrepreneurs and companies in that third location dominated the
subject through the 1960s, making Ann Arbor, for a time, the 'holography capital of the world'. Based on extensive
unpublished documents, artifacts and interviews with some two-dozen participants (much of it as yet unavailable in
publicly accessible archives), this paper focuses on the origins of the subject in Ann Arbor, Michigan. It also explores
how the initial explosion of interest was transmitted to other research groups, firms, artists and the wider public.
This paper discusses large-scale but gradual changes in the subject of holography that have only recently become readily observable. Presenting an analysis of publications in holography over the past half century, the paper illustrates and discusses the evolving shape of the subject. Over 40,000 international information sources have been recorded, including some 20,000 papers, 10,000 books, nearly as many of these and at least 500 exhibitions. This statistical and sociological approach is combined with the identification of specific factors - notably the role of individuals, conferences, proof-of-concept demonstrations and exhibitions - to suggest that the development of holography has been unusually contingent on a variety of intellectual and social influences. The paper situates these observations about holography and holographers in the context of a wider discussion about the styles, purposes and difficulties of historical writing on technological subjects. It further suggests that this ongoing process of both recording and reconstructing technological history can be aided by identification of sources sometimes overlooked or undervalued by practitioners: unpublished archival materials such as private file collections; business records; or undervalued by practitioners: unpublished archival material such as private file collections; business records; accounts of unsuccessful activities; and, by no means least, anecdotal accounts inter-linked between participants.
KEYWORDS: Light emitting diodes, Sensors, Infrared radiation, Absorbance, Methane, Optical filters, Signal detection, Mid-IR, Black bodies, Signal to noise ratio
Traditionally, mid infrared detection has been performed using black body sources and filters. With the availability of infrared LEDs, which emit between the 2 - 5 micrometers wavelength, solid state gas cells can be designed which eliminate the broad spectrum problem of black body source and allow ac signal detection without mechanical chopper wheels. Dedicated microprocessors also allow other advantages, including over-sampling and, in certain applications, emitter low power mode to reduce power consumption. Results are shown for gas cells to detect carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons. LED optical gas cells are applicable to systems that require low power drain, small size, log-term stability and/or fast warm up time. Laser Monitoring Systems Ltd has developed a family of infrared LEDs with narrower optical bandwidth that can be optically modulated by electrical pulses. These infrared LEDs can thus replace the thermal source, bandpass filters and chopper wheel of the conventional monitor, giving a solid state, lower powered, fast response and contact instrument.
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